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Drivers of Compliance with Food-Safety Measures and their effects on the Profitability of Smallholder Dairy Farms in Central Uganda
(Egerton University, 2025) Andrew Kizito Seruma
The majority of milk production in Uganda is in controlled by smallholder farmers (90% contribution) and the informal sector who face challenges in ensuring food safety. Though food safety compliance can facilitate commercialization and profitability, adoption is low. The foucs of this study was to determine food safety compliance and its profitability effect among smallholder dairy farmers. The study's specific objectives were to determine the level of compliance with food safety measures (FSMs); determine the effect of perceived behavioural control, attitudes, and subjective norms on farmers’ food safety practices; determine the leading drivers of FSMs compliance; and determine the effect of FSM adoption on the profitability of smallholder dairy enterprises in the region. Central Uganda was chosen for the research where 757 smallholder farmers were interviewed using a multi-stage sampling technique. Data was collected using structured questionnaires. Data analysis was done using SPSS, SMART PLS, and STATA. To address objective one, descriptive and inferential statistics were employed; for objective two, structural equation modeling was chosen; to address objective three, ordered logit regression was employed; and for objective four, ordered logit endogenous switching regression (ESR) was utilized. This research examined the adoption of 42 food safety measures which related to milk hygiene, storage, premises hygiene and animal health. Total adoption of FSMs was 62.88 per cent. Among the practices, milk storage was adopted to the maximum extent (73.5%) and animal health was adopted to the least extent (53.3%). Dry cow therapy and hand sanitization were adopted by less than 10%. Findings from objective two show that both behavioral control and attitude are significant predictors of the adoption of safety and hygiene control practices. In particular, they have a positive and significant effect on the outcome variable. On the other hand, subjective norms have a negative effect on safety and hygiene control practices. With respect to objective three, it was found that education of farmers, familiarity of farmers with FSMs and awareness of HACCP were important drivers of adoption. Further, the adoption significantly improved profitability by enhancing the quality of milk and market access. It was lack of farming experience, small farm size and compliance costs that were cited as barriers. The findings of objective four show that the profitability improves significantly with an increase in the adoption of FSM. This is majorly due to improvements in both, the quality of milk and premium market access. Improving the success and profitability of FSM practices requires the introduction of capacity-building, premium pricing incentives, better access to credit and supportive policies.
Synthesis of ruthenium(ii) and osmium(ii) complexes [ru/os(η6arene)l, l = bis(pyrazol-1-yl)methane; l = (3-chloro-6-(1h-pyrazol-1 yl)pyridazine]
(Egerton University, 2025) Kanyora Amos Kimemia
Cancer, a non-communicable disease, continues to rank among the top causes of mortality globally, with a substantial number of new diagnoses reported annually. Although platinum based drugs are involved in nearly 50% of cancer treatment regimens and are highly effective against various types of cancer, they suffer from drawbacks that limit their broader application and efficacy. As alternatives, (ε⁶-arene)ruthenium(II)/osmium(II) complexes have shown better antiproliferative properties and more favourable toxicity profiles, making them promising candidates for further exploration. This work reports the synthesis of fifteen mononuclear Ru(II) and Os(II) complexes bearing ε⁶-arene ligands in combination with either bis(pyrazol-1yl)methane or pyrazolyl-pyridazine donor systems. Comprehensive characterization was carried out using a suite of techniques, including CHN elemental analysis, FTIR, UV–Vis spectroscopy, ¹H and ¹³C NMR, mass spectrometry, and single-crystal X-ray diffraction. The electronic structures of the complexes were further examined through density functional theory (DFT) calculations. A subset of five Ru(II) pyrazolyl–pyridazine complexes was selected to probe their binding interactions with calf thymus DNA (CT-DNA) and glutathione (GSH) via UV–Vis absorption and fluorescence titration assays. The findings revealed that the Ru(II) compounds demonstrated moderate to strong affinities for CT-DNA, with binding occurring predominantly through minor groove interactions. Molecular docking studies further supported these findings, indicating stable binding conformations. The relative binding affinities were determined as follows: -5.8 kcal/mol (9) > -5.7 (4a) > -5.6 (3a) > -5.4 (3c) > -5.3 (4c) > -3.6 (cisplatin), suggesting stronger DNA binding than the standard drug cisplatin. Moderate anticancer activity was observed against the MCF-7 breast cancer cell line, with complex 9 being the most potent (IC₅₀ = 41.94 ± 2.05 μM), though none of the compounds showed efficacy against MDA-MB231. Ru(II) complexes with bis(pyrazol-1-yl)methane ligands showed low cytotoxicity across all cell lines tested. DFT results indicated that electron density on the metal centre and surrounding ligands significantly influenced reactivity. GSH studies revealed that chloro analogues were more readily deactivated than iodo analogues. Collectively, the results indicate that these complexes hold promise as foundational structures for designing more effective anticancer therapeutics.
TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS ON EFFECTIVENESS OF THE KCSE BIOLOGY PRACTICAL ASSESSMENT APPROACH IN TESTING SCIENCE PROCESS SKILLS IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN SIAYA COUNTY, KENYA
(Egerton University, 2017-04) OUKO, FRANCIS O.
Assessment is an important aspect of teaching - learning process in secondary schools. The Kenya Certificate of Secondary Education (KCSE) biology practical assessment approach introduced in the year 2005 is one in which out of the three questions tested, only one question, mostly food tests involve handling apparatus and specimens by the candidates. In the other two questions, the candidates observe photographs and photomicrographs presented and then answer questions. The approach was adopted with an aim of reducing the problems of cheating in biology practical examinations. However, its effectiveness in the assessment of Science Process Skills had not been ascertained. The purpose of this study was to establish the perceptions of teachers’ on the effectiveness of the assessment approach in testing science process skills. Descriptive survey research design was used in this study. The target population comprised all trained secondary school biology teachers in Siaya. Accessible population were a total of 108 secondary school biology teachers in Siaya County. Proportionate stratified sampling and simple random sampling were used to select the subjects of the study. Proportional stratified sampling was used to ensure the study sample were derived from all the six sub-counties that constitute Siaya County, while simple random sampling was used to obtain study sample from each sub-county. A total of 90 teachers formed the study sample. Biology Practical Teachers’ Questionnaire (BPTQ) was used to generate data from the respondents. Five research experts from the Faculty of Education and Community Studies, Egerton University, validated the instrument. The reliability of the instrument was estimated using Cronbach’s Alpha coefficient. Pilot-testing was conducted in the neighbouring Kisumu sub-county, Kisumu County. Reliability coefficient for the questionnaire was 0.85. Data analysis was carried out using descriptive statistics which were frequencies, means and percentages. The findings of this study indicated that, from teachers’ perceptions, the assessment of science process skills is ineffective in the KCSE Biology Practical Assessment Approach. It was concluded that in the perceptions of teachers, the KCSE Biology Practical Assessment Approach has not contributed much to the testing of science process skills in Biology practical Examinations. It was therefore recommended that a lot of hands-on activities, manipulation of specimens and handling of apparatus be reinforced in the testing of biology practical skills. The findings of this study are important in improving the testing of Biology practical paper by KNEC and teaching laboratory lessons by Biology teachers
TEACHERS’ AND PRINCIPALS’ ATTITUDES TOWARDS SCHOOL INSPECTION IN SELECTED PUBLIC SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN KENYA’S NYANDARUA DISTRICT
(Egerton University, 2007-10) WANJOHI, SIMON MWANGI.
Great emphasis has been placed on the quality of education in Kenya. The procedure used in quality assurance has been a subject of debate among educationists. Over the years, teachers and principals held negative attitudes towards the approach used in school inspection. They complained that the approach lacked clear objectives and was fault finding rather than trying to identify and improve standards. However, the Ministry of Education, Science and Technology published a handbook for inspection in the year 2000, which spelt out the uniform approach to inspection of schools. This study aimed at determining the attitudes of public secondary school teachers towards inspection of schools since the new approach was introduced. The study adopted a cross-sectional research design. Principals and teachers from public secondary schools in Nyandarua District formed the population of the study. A sample of 12 schools was purposively selected out of 34 schools that had been inspected at least once between the year 2000 and 2004. All teachers and principals from selected schools were respondents, forming a sample size of 204. Teachers‟ and Principals‟ Attitudes towards School Inspection Questionnaire (TPASIQ) was used to determine the attitudes of teachers and principals towards school inspection by experience, designation, type of inspection approach and professional qualification. Principals‟ Attitudes towards Inspection on School Management (PAISM) was used to determine principals‟ attitudes towards inspection on school management by size of the schools they headed. A panel of experts in education from Egerton University was used to establish validity of the instrument. The instrument had an α reliability coefficient of 0.795. Descriptive and inferential statistics were used in data analysis from TPASIQ and PAISM. A one way ANOVA, Pearson Product Moment Correlation Coefficient and t-test were used to test the null hypotheses at α = 0.05. The findings of the study showed that there was a significant relationship between type of inspection approach and attitudes of teachers and principals towards inspection. The reseacher concluded that the old approach to school inspection is still in use despite the Ministry‟s new initiative. It is recommended that inspectors require further training and sensitization on the current approach to inspection.
SOCIAL, CULTURAL AND ECONOMIC CAUSES OF SECONDARY SCHOOL GIRLS PREGNANCIES: IMPLICATION FOR COUNSELLING IN POKOT SOUTH SUB COUNTY OF WEST POKOT COUNTY, KENYA
(Egerton University, 2018-08) WARAGA, NJERI THERESIA
Pregnancies among secondary school girls are on the rise globally and in Kenya. As a social problem, it has adverse effects on the girls‟ academic performance, and career development as it results in girls dropping out of school and some are forced to early marriages. Despite efforts to prevent girls dropping out of school due to pregnancies, there is still evidence of high prevalence of pregnancy among girls in secondary school. This study therefore sought to establish social, cultural and economic causes of secondary school girls‟ pregnancies: Implication for counseling in Pokot South Sub County of West Pokot County, Kenya. The researcher adopted ex-post-facto survey research design. There were 18 public Secondary Schools in Pokot South-Sub County which had target population of 2436, constituted 18 head teachers, 18 head teacher counselors and 2400 students. Six girls‟ schools were purposefully chosen with population of 462 forms twos and threes who were enrolled by March 2017. A sample size of 210 students, in addition of 6 head teachers and 6 head teacher counselors to a total of 222 who participated in the study. A similar questionnaire for all respondents and oral interview schedule for teacher counselors and head teachers was used to generate the data. Reliability value obtained was 0.82. The content validity of the instrument was ascertained with the assistance of the supervisor and experts from the Department of Psychology, Counseling and Educational Foundations of Egerton University. Data collected was analyzed with the help of Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) computer program and presented in tables of frequencies and percentages. The study established, Social causes of pregnancy in the area of study as peer influence, media influence, neglect by parents, dating early and low self-esteem. Cultural causes as silence behaviour, it is taboo to talk about sex and sexuality matters, polygamous families and preserving tradition. Economic causes as poverty, unemployment, girls living high lives, for their parents to meet, bride wealth and infrastructure as among the factors predisposing Secondary School girls to pregnancy. The study recommends that the government, the Ministry of Education, School administrator, teacher counselors, parents and the entire community to have collective responsibility and realistic policies to address the surge of adolescents pregnancies. This implies that a combination of strategies with stakeholder involvement is needed to come up with a comprehensive solution to these early pregnancies.