Faculty of Environment and Resource Development

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Assessment of pastoral resource management, risks and conflict among the Waso Boran of Northern Kenya
(Egerton University, 2011-11) Jillo, Abdullahi Dima
Socio-cultural factors influencing women’s participation in tree growing in Siaya County, Kenya
(Egerton University, 2015-02) Oloo, John Odiaga
Climate change resulting from global warming is currently one of the global environmental issues of concern. Trees play a very important role in mitigating this problem through sequestrating carbon dioxide which is one of the major green house gases. The importance of trees is incontestable as they have many environmental, social and economic benefits. Effective community participation plays an important strategy for ensuring adequate tree cover but in some communities, some socio-cultural factors hamper participation of women. In Kenya, environmental degradation occasioned by low tree cover is evident. The current tree cover in the study area is approximately 3% which is far below the recommended national level of 10%. However, those socio-cultural factors that might influence women‟s participation in tree growing in the study area has not been fully studied and documented. Therefore, the broad objective of this study was “to identify and document the socio-cultural factors which influence women‟s participation in tree growing in Siaya County, Kenya”. This study employed a cross-sectional survey research design. The instruments used were; questionnaire, discussion guide and interview schedule. Reliability of 0.710 was realized when pilot tested. A sample size of 280 respondents i.e. 190 women and 90 men were interviewed. Data analysis used Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) software i.e. Coefficient for determination (R2) for quantitative data at 0.05 confidence level, and for descriptive data, pie-charts, tables, percentages generated. On land title deeds, 95% had men names only, 50% agreed traditions influence participation, andabout 40% agreed beliefs influence while for gender, 54% agreed that it does not. On triangulation, traditions, beliefs, and land tenure were confirmed as influencing women‟s participation in tree growing. The R2 values realised were: 3.6%, 3.6% and 4.0% with p-values significant at 0.037, 0.037 and 0.280 respectively. Three tree species women are forbidden from growing are Euphorbia triculli, Albizia coriaria and Tamarindus indica. In conclusion, the three socio-cultural factors influencing participation of women are: traditions, beliefs and land tenure. To increase tree cover, women should be involved in tree growing and Luo Council of elders should sensitize community members to discard traditions and beliefs which discriminate against women, and include names of women in land title deeds.
The ecology and relative abundance of clarias species in relation to land use change in the M Mpologoma riverine wetland, Uganda
(Egerton University, 2015-10) Asiyo, Ssanyu Grace
Land use change influences wetland’s services through effects on structure, physicochemical environment and the biota. This consequently affects the ecology and relative abundance of individuals or populations of certain fish species. This calls for concerted efforts to understand the wetlands’ response to land use change impacts if a sustainable balance between demand and wetland resources is to be achieved. The ecology and relative abundance of the endemic small Clarias species in relation to land use change were examined at selected sites in the Mpologoma riverine wetland. The main objective of the study was to investigate the small Clarias species’ life history biometrics, movement patterns, wetland fishery production and its socio economics at different sites in relation to land use. Four sites exposed to different disturbance levels ranging from intact wetland, least disturbed, moderately and highly disturbed were identified. Selected physico-chemical parameters were determined to differentiate the sites further. Field sampling for fish habitat attributes, wetland fish biometrics and catch, and a socioeconomic survey were done in 2012. Land use, water quality and fish catch models were used to predict land use and the fishery production change with time. Water conductivity was significantly higher at the highly disturbed site than less disturbed sites (one way ANOVA and Tukey’s HSD test; p < 0.05). The total phosphorus content was higher at the least disturbed sites. Two small Clarias species were identified. Mean total length and weight of Clarias liocephalus (Boulenger 1902), the most abundant species (66%), were 16.81 ± 4.03 cm and 33.77 ± 19.63 g, respectively, whilst those for Clarias alluaudi (Boulenger, 1906) (34%) were 17.83 ± 4.49 cm and 39.94 ± 22.99 g, respectively. The total length, weight and fecundity of both species were significantly higher at the highly disturbed sites than at the least disturbed sites (between the weight of C. alluaudi at less disturbed and highly disturbed sites with ANOVA and Tukey’s HSD test at p = 0.003, and between weight of C. liocephalus at less disturbed and highly disturbed sites at p = 0.013). The fish weight positively correlated with conductivity (R2 = 0.22; p = 0.001) and negatively related to total phosphorus (R2 = -0.357; p = 0.001). The female individuals of the both species matured faster at the highly disturbed Nsango site than at the less disturbed sites. The small Clarias fish associated more with habitats of 0.5 m depth and their prey items were dominated by chironomid larvae at the highly disturbed sites and adult insects at the less disturbed sites. Their movement pattern did not significantly vary with sites but moved downstream in dry season. The small scale wetland fishery was dominated by Clarias gariepinus (Burchell, 1815) and Protopterus aethiopicus (Heckel, 1851) with higher catch at the less disturbed sites than at highly disturbed sites, accounting for 91.5% of total wetland fish production. As the wetland cover was changing to other land uses, an increasing trend of catch per unit effort of the small clariids was predicted at the highly disturbed sites with subsequent increase from 516 to 1114 g/trap/night. The findings were mainly attributed to habitat disturbance that provided population-level benefits and pollution tolerance of the small Clarias species. Wetland disturbance negatively impacted the large wetland fish species ecology given the observed significant decline in the weight of C. gariepinus and P. aethiopicus at the highly disturbed site (ANOVA and Tukey’s test; p < 0.05). Clarias fishery resource was important to the livelihoods of the riparian communities as major bait for the large wetland fish species and a cheap fish source, contributing to poverty allievation in the area. However, Mpologoma riverine wetland was undervalued by policy makers, there was no management strategy associated to it. The information generated illustrated that there is need to formulate appropriate wetland specific and small scale fisheries management strategies for the Mpologoma riverine wetland in order to maintain its relevance to riparian community and the region at large.
The Impact of Microfinance Credit on Microenterprises’ Performance and Entrepreneurs’ Livelihoods: a Study of Businesses Managed by Members of Self-help Groups in Kakamega County, Kenya
(Egerton University, 2016-04) Obulinji, Humphreys Were
Shortage of capital is a major constraint in the development of microenterprises (MEs) among entrepreneurs who are members of self-help groups (SHGs) in Butere, Mumias, Matungu and Khwisero Sub-Counties of Kakamega County. Shortage of capital is occasioned by inability of entrepreneurs in the informal sector to access credit from mainstream financial institutions. Thus, a number of microfinance institutions (MFIs) in the study area provide credit to members of SHGs operating MEs so as to improve their businesses. However, it is not clear: how entrepreneurs’ and MEs’ characteristics influence total microfinance credit secured by entrepreneurs; and how microfinance credit impacts MEs income, capitalization, employment and entrepreneurs’ incomes and subsequently, their livelihoods in the study area. The study, therefore, sought to investigate these issues. Both survey and experimental research designs were used in the study. A sample of 267 credit-assisted entrepreneurs (representing 15 per cent of the target population) who were members of SHGs operating MEs located in 40 centres, was drawn using stratified and proportionate random sampling techniques for study. Also, a control group sample comprising 155 entrepreneurs (representing 15 per cent of enumerated population) in the 40 centres, who were non-beneficiaries of credit operating MEs was drawn and surveyed. The study relied on both primary and secondary data. Primary data was sourced from entrepreneurs and key informant and collected using: a semi-structured questionnaire; case-studies; observations; and informal interviews. Data collected was analyzed using descriptive statistics, chi-square, correlation and multivariate linear regression. The study found out that entrepreneurs’ and MEs’ characteristics were significantly different and influenced differences in total microfinance credit secured by entrepreneurs based on ME type. Further, these characteristics were significantly correlated with total microfinance credit secured, even though they explain only 24.9 per cent of the change in the total microfinance credit secured by entrepreneurs. Significant differences were also observed in the way entrepreneurs spent microfinance credit secured on MEs variables based on credit source. Notably, 69.2 per cent and 30.8 per cent of the total credit secured was spent on MEs and household items, respectively. Microfinance credit secured impacted significantly on MEs incomes and capitalization levels and not on employment levels, with ME incomes impacting significantly on entrepreneurs’ incomes and livelihoods. These findings have important development implications especially for planners, policy makers, SHGs, MFIs and other stakeholders in Kenya’s ME development framework
Stock assessment and socio-economic characterization of fisheries in lake Baringo, Kenya
(Egerton University, 2016-11) Macharia, Simon
The fisheries sector is significant to socio-economic development through provision of employment,income and food security. Global fisheries resources face unsustainable fishing pressure. In Kenya, unsustainable harvesting is due to use of management measures not informed by stock assessment studies. The aim of this study was to conduct stock assessment and characterize socio-economic dynamics for Lake Baringo Fisheries management. Stock assessment studies featured estimation of biological reference points, optimal fishing scenario, gear selectivity and socio-economic dynamics of fishermen and fish trader’s. Daily fish samples were taken from 40% of boats in the lake, five (5) days in a week between August 2013 and July 2014. A sub-sample constituting 40% of each fish species representing various size classes were obtained for length (to the nearest 0.1 cm) and weight (to the nearest 0.1 g) measurements. A total of 3,155 Protopterus aethiopicus, 2,769 Oreochromis niloticus baringoensis and 1,922 Clarias gariepinus were sampled. A structured questionnaire was administered to 42 fishermen and 34 fish traders’ selected randomly for socio-economics studies. Statistical analyses were conducted at 95% significance level. The steady state biomass for Protopterus aethiopicus, Oreochromis niloticus baringoensis and Clarias gariepinus was 474,779kg, 564 kg and 21,383 kg respectively. The maximum sustainable yield for Protopterus aethiopicus, Oreochromis niloticus baringoensis and Clarias gariepinus was 237,390, 451 and 10,692 kg respectively. The results of the study suggest that the exploitation rate for Protopterus aethiopicus (E = 0.68 > Emax = 0.25 yr-1) exceeded maximum exploitation rates indicating growth overfishing. Oreochromis niloticus baringoensis and Clarias gariepinus exploitation rates were at congenial state with no growth overfishing. Hence, Protopterus aethiopicus (F = 1.34 yr-1) fishing mortality’s should be reduced by 41.6% for reference maximum sustainable yield. The current spawning stock biomass-per-recruit (SSBCURR) for Protopterus aethiopicus (5.46%) and Oreochromis niloticus baringoensis (1.46%) show a level of recruitment overfishing. Logistic gear selection indicates L 50% of 63.48 cm selection of Protopterus aethiopicus before size of first maturity (85 cm) further adducing recruitment overfishing. Logistic gear selection indicates L 50% of Oreochromis niloticus baringoensis (15.57 cm) and C. gariepinus (35.08 cm) shows no recruitment overfishing. The age, traditions and culture of fishermen had effect on fishing effort. Fishermen changed gears from nets (for Oreochromis niloticus baringoensis) to hooks (for Protopterus aethiopicus and Clarias gariepinus) with age advancement and was accounted for by enhanced experience and target for high valued fish species. Shift dependence of fishing from domestic to commercial purpose relative to fishermen increased with age. Fish trade was entirely controlled by fishermen daily catches while their local and external markets had no significant difference. Management measures to control overfishing should target reduction of fish mortality rates for sustainable utilization of the lake Fisheries.
Assessment of institutional capacity and adoption of forestry innovations in Kenya
(Egerton University, 2016-11) Mukolwe, Michael Onyango
Kenya's forest sector is undergoing major changes, which are attributed to the rapid depletion and degradation of natural resources, as well as viable actions on remedial measures. The demand for forest products and ecosystem services continue to increase against a declining supply from afforestation, reforestation and the dynamics of work. This emerging challenge necessitates improving the institutional capacity of organisations that are involved in, or support forest conservation activities. It is increasingly recognised that a combination of factors, which include inefficient operational capacity, contributes to the low levels in adopting forestry innovations. This implies that there are limited possibilities to achieving an enhanced adoption of forestry innovations over time. There is therefore, a need to identify the knowledge gaps and quantify the interactive influence of institutional capacity on adoption of forestry innovations over time. The main objective of the study was to analyse institutional capacity and adoption of forestry innovations across relevant institutions in Kenya. The study dealt with 51 main institutions involved in, or support conservation activities, of which 32 were public, 15 non-governmental, and 4 private. Stratified purposive sampling was used due to the heterogeneity of the institutions involved in conservation. Primary data were collected using a structured questionnaire to examine the following capacity indicators: human capital, conservation interactions, training interactions, research interactions, user interactions, internal interactions, non-salary incentives, salary incentives, technical support, published outputs, electronic media output, conservation management, conservation investments, and facilities at empirical level. Conceptually, the indicators were categorised as tangible and intangible variables at operational level. Their interactive variables constituted the theoretical level expressed as visible adoption of forestry innovations. The analytical model used, which was based on quartile statistics, established what accounted for the differences in capacity variation as expected variation region or the common cause and the unexpected variation region or the special cause, which should be investigated and acted upon. Embracing the approach confirmed the model as appropriate quantitative analytical framework for assessing and articulating elements of institutional capacity and adoption of forestry innovations across the relevant institutions in Kenya. Evidently, the study reiterates that to overcome institutional capacity gaps and respond to conservation paradigm shift, relevance, engagement, and commitment of all stakeholders is imperative.
Use of seasonal climate forecast and drought effects on livestock assets in Baringo County, Kenya
(Egerton University, 2018-03) Ochieng’, Richard
Increased frequency, severity and duration of drought events in arid and semi-arid regions (ASALs) of Kenyan increase scarcity in water and pastures that support livestock assets. This destabilizes the livelihood base dependent on livestock assets. Use of seasonal climate forecasts (SCFs) can provide early warning of the drought events and inform actions to reduce vulnerability of pastoral households to drought effects. This study assessed trends and severity of drought events, their effects on livestock assets, effectiveness and usefulness of SCF in predicting drought events, and identified enabling conditions for better use of SCF. The study was in the ASALs of Baringo County in Lower Midland 5 (LM5) and Inner Lowland 6 (IL6) Agro-ecological zones. Data was from Meteorological Services, household survey, Key Informant interviews, and secondary sources. Computation of drought indices determined trends and severity of droughts. Means comparisons and Chi square determined drought effects on livestock assets and enabling conditions for use of SCF. Sensitivity analysis and correlation tests determined effectiveness and usefulness of SCF. Results showed a declining trend in rainfall between 1970 and 2008 with marked peak periods and extreme low rainfall corresponding to extreme climatic events. Drought re-occurrences were within shorter intervals and were characterized by trekking livestock, loss of livestock assets and decline in market value of stock. These observations corroborated with perceptions of pastoralists that livestock asset loss increases, productivity declines and stock market value declines during droughts. Annual rainfall correlated negatively (r = - 0.6879, p<0.05) with drought events. Relayed SCF was 85.71% and 80.00% of the times effective in predicting March-April-May (MAM) and October November-December (OND) seasons, respectively. The SCF was 75.00% and 57.14% of the times useful in prediction of MAM and OND seasons, respectively. In order of importance, the media, integration of traditional climate information and extension services were most effective enabling conditions for disseminating SCFs. Most important hindrances to use of SCFs were insecurity, conflicts, illiteracy, and lack of access to SCFs information. The study concluded that these ASALs would continue to experience decreasing trends in total annual rainfall, re-current droughts and even become drier over time. The drought events negatively affect livestock asset and different livestock species respond differently to rainfall variability and drought events. The seasonal climate forecasts are effective in predicting drought events and therefore useful tool in decision-making.
Effects of drought on household livelihoods and adaptation strategies in Laikipia west sub-county, Kenya
(Egerton University, 2018-04) Karanja, Amon Mwangi
Prolonged and severe droughts have affected many parts of sub-Saharan Africa, increasing cases of crop failure, hunger and destruction of habitats. Kenya has experienced worse droughts since the turn of the 20th century, with increased frequency in the recent decades. This study assessed effects of drought on household livelihoods and adaptation strategies in Laikipia West sub-County. The specific objectives of the study were to: analyze temporal drought trends in Laikipia West sub-County from 1984 to 2014; determine the impact of drought events on household livelihoods; establish the household perceptions to drought disasters; evaluate the household and community drought adaptation strategies and drought adaptation determinants; evaluate the role of institutions in managing local level drought adaptations in Laikipia West sub-County. The study adopted mixed research design where quantitative and qualitative approaches were used. The study utilized three sets of data, rainfall amount data (1984-2014), household surveys (N=196) and key informant interviews (N=8). Standard Precipitation Index, logistic regression, trend analysis, Kendall rank, chi square and percentages were used during data analysis. The severe drought years identified were; 1984, 1985, 1987, 1991, 2005 and 2009. The study also established that the average drought cycle in the study area is 3 years. On drought perception 53% of the households felt that the 2009 drought was moderate, while 47% felt that it was severe. Household drought perception was significantly related to source of income, land ownership and the length of engagement in farming activities. According to respondents, the 2009 drought impacted crops (75%), livestock (78%). Drought adaptations determinants are source of income, land ownership, training on agriculture and age. Household drought adaptation strategies in Laikipia West sub-County are: seasonal migration with animals (25%), search for employment (15%), off-farm practices (15%) and reducing the herd (14%). Community drought adaptation strategies are; stock cereals and grains (27%), change of cropping patterns when drought is predicted (13%) and drilling of boreholes (9%). Both formal and informal institutions perform the following roles: encouraging crop farmers to plant early maturing varieties and advise pastoralist on the need for emergency livestock off takes. The study recommends adoption of drought resistant crops such as sorghum and green grams and early maturing crop varieties. The study also recommends creation of awareness on the need to insure crops and livestock against drought risk. Future studies should analyze the role of indigenous knowledge on drought adaptation strategies in Laikipia West sub-County
Value of ecosystem services and socio-economic factors that enhance community participation in forest management in Aberdare forest, Kenya
(Egerton University, 2018-05) Wambugu, Elizabeth Wanjiru
Forest ecosystems have been a valuable source of economic wellbeing of human populations for centuries, particularly to the forest adjacent communities. The relationship between human wellbeing and ecosystems consist of complex systems that are mostly nonlinear, uncertain and often not clearly understood. To enhance forest sustainability, the deliberate evaluation of ecosystem services, human interactions and appropriate ways to involve the public in management is imperative. However, little has been done to demonstrate how forest ecosystem services and public participation could contribute to forest conservation and socio-economic development of forest-dependent communities. This study therefore evaluated forest ecosystem services and socio-economic factors that influence community participation in forest management to enhance forest conservation while improving livelihoods. To achieve this objective, the study interviewed local communities bordering Aberdare forest ecosystem. The study was based on semi-structured questionnaires administered to a stratified random sample of 202 households, six focus group discussions and benefit transfer method. The data was analyzed using Chi square, Spearman’s rho correlation and regression analysis. The findings of this study showed that the net annual benefit of ecosystem services was approximately KES 36.8 (US$ 0.37) billion where regulating services constituted 98%. The communities lost KES 172 (US$ 1.7) million annually to wildlife. The net annual return from forest conservation was higher as the opportunity cost of forest land conversion was approximately KES 4.2 (US$ 0.04) billion. The significant factors included forest management approach (χ² = 17.551, p < 0.001), distance to the Forest Reserve (χ² = 29.071, p < 0.001), distance to the National Park (χ² = 27.303, p = 0.008), gender of household head (χ² = 10.719, p = 0.002), land tenure (χ² = 34.313, p < 0.001) and sources of income (χ² = 31.353, p < 0.001). Economic factors that included farm size, household size, annual income, land tenure, and importance of the forest ecosystem were found to significantly influence the regression model with R2 being 0.703. It can be concluded that if only provisioning ecosystem services are considered, there is a net loss arising from conservation. Therefore, it is imperative to encash all the ecosystem services to decrease forest conversion and depletion based on economic forces. Further, increasing economic benefits to the community will positively influence participatory forest management. This study recommends that to fully engage the community in participatory forest management, there is need to consider their basic livelihood strategies as well promote forest products availability on the farmlands to reduce pressure on the forest ecosystems.
Effects of forest fragmentation on forest cover change, tree species diversity and carbon stock in Taita hills, Kenya
(Egerton University, 2018-09) Chemuku, Wekesa
The fragmentation of forests into smaller isolated patches is a threat to biodiversity conservation. Fragmentation reduces the forest area and increases forest edge effect. Reduction in forested area may lead to increased local species extinctions, while effects of increased forest edge alter species interactions by increasing the degree of interaction among edge and forest interior species. Intensification of land uses surrounding forest patches resulting from population increase exacerbate the edge effects thereby having significant impact on tree species diversity and the potential of the forest fragments to sequester carbon. Comparative studies were undertaken in five main forest fragments of varying sizes in Taita Hills, Kenya to examine the effects of forest fragmentation on forest cover change, tree species diversity and above-ground carbon stock. Belt transects proportional to the forest size were established along forest edge-interior gradient, and square plots (10x10m) established systematically for assessment of the forest structure, tree species richness and diversity, edaphic factors and above-ground carbon stock. Analysis of Landsat images of 1973, 1987, 2001, 2012 and 2016 provided information on forest cover change of the fragments between 1973 and 2016. Data collected from the field was analysed using GenStat version 16.0 and CANOCO for Windows version 4.5 while Landsat images were analysed using ArcGIS version 10.2. Statistical testing for significance was performed at 95% confidence interval. The results showed that the annual rate of deforestation in Taita Hills was 0.5% and the forest fragments lost 23.2% of their cover between 1973 and 2016. The forest area lost was higher in Vuria (43%) and Chawia (32.7%) which are non-gazetted forests managed by the County government of Taita Taveta but lower in Fururu (3.2%), Mbololo (13.7%) and Ngangao (16.8%) which are gazetted forests managed by Kenya Forest Service. There was no significant edge effect on tree species diversity in Chawia (p=0.564)), Fururu (p=0.689), Mbololo (p=0.369), Ngangao (p=0.576) and Vuria (p=0.338), although the species diversity was higher in the forest interior than in the intermediate forest and on the forest edge in all the five forest fragments. Carbon stocks were not significantly affected by the edge effect in Chawia (p=0.704), Fururu (p=0.908), Mbololo (p=0.544), Ngangao (p=0.991) and Vuria (p=0.590). There was a significant edge effect on the abundance and distribution of key dominant and adaptable species i.e. Macaranga conglomerata, Albizia gummifera, Syzygium guineense, Xymalos monospora, Tabernaemontana stapfiana and Maesa lanceolata (p=0.012). There was no significant edge effect on species richness in Chawia (p=0.490), Fururu (p=0.507), Mbololo (p=0.303), Ngangao (p=0.886) and Vuria (p=0.090). Large forest fragments had significantly higher species richness and diversity in all the habitats along the forest edge-interior gradient than small forest fragments (p=0.001) and (p=0.001) respectively. There was no significant effect of fragment size on carbon stock (p=0.634). There was significant edge effect on soil pH in Mbololo (p=0.001), Ngangao (p=0.001) and Vuria (p=0.042) but not in Chawia (p=0.700) and Fururu (p=0.667). There was significant edge effect on soil electrical conductivity in Fururu (p=0.048) but not in Chawia (p=0.896), Mbololo (p=0.367), Ngangao (p=0.555) and Vuria (p=0.861). The edge effect significantly affected soil nitrogen in Fururu (p=0.038) and potassium level in the soil in Mbololo (p=0.002) and Ngangao (p=0.035). The results show that forest fragmentation contributed to substantial loss in forest cover and hence reducing the capacity of the forest fragments to sequester carbon. Besides, the edge effect created by fragmentation contributed to reduction in floral species richness and diversity, and affected edaphic conditions. These results provide robust evidence for developing land use policies and appropriate management strategies for effective conservation of fragmented forest ecosystems.
Environmental and socio-economic impacts of artisanal gold mining on agricultural production in Sikasso region, Mali
(Egerton University, 2018-11) Keita, Mahamadou Moussa
In West Africa, artisanal gold mining competes with agriculture, more specifically crop farming and livestock keeping. Mali is not an exceptional to this observation. In Sikasso region, women and youths have been reported to abandon agricultural activities for artisanal gold mining. It is against this background that this study was conducted to assess the factors that influenced households to be engaged in artisanal gold mining, to evaluate its impacts on water quality, subsistence crops, livestock production and to assess income sources of households in Sikasso region. This study was conducted using mixed methods approach: a Cross-Sectional survey as well as an ecological survey. The study used exploratory and descriptive methods as a research design and random sampling. The research tools used were structured questionnaire, focus group discussion, key informant interviews, observation check-list and secondary data review. Water sample collection and sample processing and analysis were done as per APHA protocols. The data was analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistics such as Pearson’s Chi-square and correlation, logistic and multiple leaner regressions. The factors that had significant influence on artisanal gold mining included profession (χ2 = 96.8; p < 0.001), nativity (χ2 = 78.1; p < 0.001) and education level (χ2 = 22.9; p < 0.001) of the respondents. The concentration of cadmium and lead in the sampled water significantly exceeded WHO drinking water quality guidelines (p < 0.05). However, the concentration of Arsenic in water samples was not significantly different from the WHO drinking water quality guidelines. Artisanal gold mining impacted significantly on cereals crops (χ2 = 13.9; p < 0.001), vegetable farming (χ2 = 48.9; p < 0.001) and composting (χ2 = 61.6; p < 0.001). Further, artisanal gold mining significantly affected cattle, goat and sheep production (χ2 = 58.3; χ2 = 13.9; χ2 = 27.5; p<0.001) respectively. The study findings indicate that artisanal gold mining has negative effects on water quality as well as crop and livestock production. Artisanal gold mining has led to reduced labour for agricultural production thus minimized agricultural outputs. This will impact heavily on food and nutritional security not only for Mali but also the entire West African region. In addition, the income sources of households were influenced by profession, nativity, gender, age, education level and family size. These findings will contribute towards environmental conservation and safeguarding livelihoods, environmental and human health in Sikasso region. Further, the findings will contribute towards sustainable agriculture and hence enhanced food security in the region and the country in general.
Nitrogen loading and ground water contamination comparison among different farm sizes in Ainabkoi Sub-County, Uasin Gishu County,Kenya
(Egerton University, 2018-11) Kitonga, Lydiah Lucy Mbula
The mobility of nitrate-N (NO3-N), nitrite-N (NO2-N) and ammonium-N (NH4-N) down the soil profile and its ultimate presence in groundwater is aggravated by predisposing conditions such as farm agricultural activities and nitrogen fertilizer management, rainfall, seasons and well sanitary conditions. The main objective of the study was to assess the groundwater nitrogen loading compared in different farm sizes. The study was conducted in three agro-ecological wards of Ainabkoi sub-county. Each ward was identified as a homogenous stratum of same size-ranged farms. Farms in Ainabkoi ward were large, family-generations-owned mixed farm sizes and ranged 40-71 acres (16-29 ha) with an average farm acreage of 56 acres (23 ha). In Kaptagat ward farms were medium sized mixed farms on purchased settlement farms and ranged from 10-35 acres (4-14 ha). The small mixed farm sizes were located in Olare ward and ranged 2-10 acres (0.8-4 ha) in size. Farms in each ward were purposively selected such that only accessible farms that had access to either a privately owned or communal wells were selected. The study was carried out between 2012 and 2013. Onsite sanitary survey of the wells and the homesteads was carried out in each farm. A questionnaire was used to obtain general information on farm production and management, farm sizes, crops grown, crop acreage, cropping calendars, types and number of livestock animals kept, type and amount of fertilizer applied and well characteristics. The nitrate-N, nitrite-N and ammonium-N concentrations did not exceed the recommended maximum concentration by Kenya and WHO of 10mg/l, 3mg/l and 0.5mg/l respectively. The physico-chemical parameters were within the acceptable limits set by WHO except for turbidity. There was a positive linear relationship between the average fertilizer N amount at top dressing and the groundwater nitrate (Y = 0.0836x – 165.18 R2 = 0.31), hence N pollution is closely related to the amount and timing of fertilizer application. There were highly significant differences between precipitation and the N concentration although the trends were not clearly recognizable. There was a highly significant positive linear relationship between the monthly rainfall amount and NO3-N concentration in well water (Y = 0.1759x + 22.07 R2 = 0.23***). There were highly significant differences between the farm sizes in the sanitary contamination risk scores mainly due to individual farm endowments, well site environmental factors and ownership. Conclusively, precipitation, season and timing of fertilizer application were common significant predictors of the concentration levels of N in well water. The absence of any significant N contamination of groundwater in this study does not preclude it occurring in the future. Best nitrogen fertilizer management strategies should be adopted in order to synchronize N supply with crop seasonal demand such as timing and splitting of fertilizer N application and real-time monitoring of nitrogen in soil, plants and groundwater. Well conformity requirements with regard to the parameters of well construction and its vicinities are necessary.
Influence of occupational exposure to white board marker ink on symptoms of allergic conjunctivitis among secondary school teachers in Nakuru County, Kenya
(Egerton University, 2019-05) Muchemi, Sabina Muthoni
Allergic conjunctivitis is a common problem affecting about 20% of the world’s population. In Kenya, it constitutes one fifth of all the total diagnoses made in eye clinics with school teachers in Nakuru North Sub-County in Nakuru County having a prevalence of 51.2%. Untreated allergic conjunctivitis can cause injury to the conjunctiva and the eye lids while some of the drugs used to treat can cause life threatening diseases. Irritants such as the volatile organic compounds which constitute the ink solvents of whiteboard marker pens increase the likelihood of developing the allergy. This study therefore sought to establish the influence of the VOCs from the whiteboard marker ink on the development of symptoms of allergic conjunctivitis among the teachers in Nakuru County. The research design was Cross Sectional using repeated measures with a sample of 224 secondary school teachers. Only schools which use whiteboards were considered for the study. Questionnaires were used to collect information on the reported symptoms of allergic conjunctivitis among teachers while air samples were collected using transparent polythene bags. Classroom temperature and CO2 were measured using carbon dioxide sensor AZ-0004. Data was collected in July-Aug (2016), Sep-Oct (2016) and Jan-Feb (2017) months of the year. Air samples were analyzed using gas chromatography. Data was analyzed using both descriptive and inferential statistics. The results showed that the marker pen inks used contained methanol, acetone, hexane and ethanol. The ink VOCs were more likely to be found at the upper parts and front of the classrooms. Teachers were not knowledgeable on ink safety but had a positive attitude towards the use of the marker pens. They also did not show safe practices when using the marker pens in classrooms. The concentration of ink VOCs in the air increased with increase in concentration of CO2 and temperature. The highest incidences of symptoms of allergic conjunctivitis were in the cold seasons while the lowest incidence was in the hottest and dry months of the year. Increase in symptoms of allergic conjunctivitis increased with increase in concentration (r2=0.8414) and duration of exposure (r2=0.5807) to ink VOCs while there was a significant association (χ2 =6.933; p=0.031) between ink brand and eye irritation. This study concludes that occupational exposure to whiteboard marker pen ink causes symptoms of allergic conjunctivitis and recommends that teachers be trained on occupational safety procedures on handling whiteboard marker pens in classrooms.
Occupational safety and health status in the informal Non-food manufacturing sector in Kampala city, Uganda
(Egerton University, 2019-10) Wekoye, Stephen Aurice
The informal sector is an engine of growth with more than 1.8 billion people globally and one billion workers in developing countries producing a greater portion of GD (25-60%) in developing countries. It provides employment opportunities to majority of the population in both developing and developed countries. However the sector is unregulated and recorded in government statistics. There are high and tragic incidences of occupational related accidents and injuries that go unabated in Kampala. The purpose of the study was to assess the OSH status in the informal non-food manufacturing sector and identify interventions in Kampala. A cross sectional survey design was used, both qualitative and quantitative data were collected. 424 firms were sampled; manufacture of metal products, furniture, textiles and clothing, concrete and brick, paper and paper recycling, repair of machinery and other manufacturing sectors of the informal sector. Data on hazards and control measures, knowledge, attitudes, administrative measures and compliance were obtained using questionnaires, checklists and interview, on OSH Legal framework were obtained from ILO OSH conventions, Acts, textbooks and government reports and analysed into frequencies, percentages, chi-square and multivariate regression. Various types of hazards were identified; inadequate ventilation 66 (50.4%), optical radiation 55 (44%), extreme weather 88 (37.4%), extreme heat 71 (34.3%), extreme noise 79 (27.9%), in manufacture of metal products. Noxious gases 91 (26.7%) and paints 66 (19.5%) in furniture and metal products while sharps 77 (21.3%) were in manufacture of metal products. Ergonomic hazards heavy lifting 67 (19.5%) in metallic products and psychosocial hazards such as stress accounted for 105 (30.5%) in metal products. Factors affecting OSH practices at p< 0.05 were; age 2 = 51.3, gender 2 = 23.9, marital status 2 = 17.1, education level 2 = 147.3, period working in Jua-kali 2, = 87.5, number of employees at work 2 =69.9 and hours spend per day 2 = 19.8 while the CORs were; age 0.0467- 0.0478, gender 0.0918-0.0997, education level 0.0859-0.0819, PPE usage 0.0317-0.0319). All the enterprises lacked awareness on OSH regulations, workplace OSH policies and certificates of machinery inspection. Knowledge of occupational hazards and control measures was moderate 271 (70%) while attitude towards hazard control measures by complying with safety precautions was very poor (below 16%). Compliance with hazard control measures was low, however PPE usage was 254 (65.4%) and 239 (61.6%) applying hazard control measures in the informal sector. Creation of awareness through mass media, training and awareness, provision of OSH regulations and regulation by government were recommended.
Assessment of occupational exposures to lead among artisans working in the informal automobile sector in Nakuru town, Kenya
(Egerton University, 2019-11) Odongo, Alfred Owino
Lead is a common toxic heavy metal with unique physical and chemical properties that make it suitable for a variety of applications in automobile industry. The artisans in the informal automobile industry are involved in diverse occupational tasks such as spray painting and welding that predispose them to health risks associated with lead exposures. Their work presents risks of inhalation, dermal absorption or ingestion of lead particles. The objective of this study was to evaluate occupational exposures to lead and associated health risks among the artisans. A comparative cross-sectional study was conducted and data collected using structured questionnaire, observational checklist and laboratory analysis. In the study, 115 purposively sampled participants participated. Stratified and proportionately sampled 55 artisans were recruited from 10 workshops and 60 college students as the non-exposed comparative group. Flame Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometry (FAAS) was used to analyze lead concentrations in blood (n=30) and scalp hair (n=30) samples. Task-based airborne lead samples were analysed using Inductively Coupled Plasma Atomic Emission Spectroscopy (ICP-AES) in accordance with NIOSH 7300 standard method. Serum Alanine aminotransferase (ALT) activity and estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) measurements were conducted using Reflotron biochemical auto-analyzer. Data was analysed using descriptive statistics, regression analysis, ANOVA, Chi-square, t-test and Prevalence Ratios (PR) calculated. Results showed that there was statistically significant differences in mean airborne lead exposure levels in the different occupational tasks (F (4, 15) =10.087, p=0.000). A high statistically significant mean blood lead (BPb) level was recorded among artisans compared to students (p=0.001). The mean BPb exceeded the WHO biological exposure index (BEI) of concern for adults (p=0.049). There was a positive correlation between task based airborne lead exposure levels with BPb levels (r=0.68, p=0.001). The artisans had a statistically significant decrease in eGFR compared to the students (p =0.000). However, the mean eGFR values were within the normal reference value (>90 mL/min/1.73m2). In conclusion, the artisans were occupationally exposed to lead and task based airborne lead was a statistically significant predictor of blood lead levels (p =0.001). Key recommendations are to institute intervention measures at the industry to curb lead health risks and possible chronic health effects, review the legislative framework on occupational safety and health for the sector and put surveillance system that integrates lead screening and testing among the study participants
Household Access to Public Primary Healthcare Facilities in Nakuru Town - Kenya
(Egerton University, 2021-05) Mokaya, Samwel Bogonko
Nakuru town has a restricted utilizable primary healthcare services for its people. Hence, patients die from illnesses which there is a cure and communities are affected by many diseases which are healable. This has contributed to the affrication of many avoidable illnesses. This study assessed the households’ access of public primary healthcare facilities in Nakuru town. The main objective of this study is to reduce preventable morbidity and mortality in Kenya by improving levels of household access to and utilization of available primary health care services. The researcher involved a descriptive cross-sectional survey, health facility evaluation survey, and a key informant interview. A sample of 400 households was picked from the eleven wards in Nakuru town. Data was collected using a standard household questionnaire, healthcare facility evaluation schedule, and key informants, interview schedule. Various descriptive and inferential statistics was used to analyse the data. These were; chi-square test and logistic regression. Logistic regression results revealed that the major correlates of utilization of public PHC among households in Nakuru Town are; age of household (P<0.5); household of income (P<0.01); gender of household head (P<0.01); household heads’ of schooling (P<0.5); households head’s occupation (P<0.01) and household monthly income (P<0.01) were important factors that influence access and utilization of public PHC facilities in Nakuru Town. Within the study area, the PHC facilities have inadequate staff and drugs. The ratio of healthcare personnel to population was low at 1:10,020. The distribution of healthcare facilities in the study area is uneven; some wards such Kivumbini, Flamingo and Kaptembwo had no public PHC facility. The disparity in the distribution of healthcare facilities in the study implies disparities in the access and utilization of public primary health care facilities by the population within the town. There is therefore need to improve access and utilization of public primary health care facilities in all the wards in Nakuru town. Finally, there is need for the County Government of Nakuru to employ more staff and build more public PHC facilities using population threshold yardstick.
Evaluation of Cactus (Opuntia Ficus-Indica) And Prosopis Juliflora as Potential Supplementary Feed Resources for Livestock In Drought-Prone Areas of Kenya
(Egerton university, 2021-11) Muteng'e, Margaret Syomiti
Assessment of beneficiaries’ perceptions of the post-implementation stages and sustainability of slum upgrading in Nakuru City and Kitale Town, Kenya
(Egerton University, 2023-06) Lugairi, Estone
Kenya has embraced slum upgrading as a development strategy to address increasing urban slum population in order to formalize and integrate slums into the overall urban framework. However, most of the available studies did not address sustainability of the interventions, and disproportionately focused on primary cities compared to secondary cities. This study sought to assess beneficiaries’ perception of the post-implementation and sustainability of the Integrated Urban Housing Project in Nakuru and the Building in Partnership: Participatory Urban Planning project in Kitale. Specifically, the study assessed the level of participation in post-implementation and sustainability; determined the influence of participation in postimplementation on sustainability; and assessed the perception of beneficiaries about impact on the living conditions and livelihoods. The study was anchored on the Theory of Change and Sustainable Livelihood Framework, It adopted a multiple case study research design and targeted 7261 project beneficiaries, Project Manager, 2 County Urban Development Officers, and 193 officials of local community-based organizations. A sample of 392 respondents was selected comprising of 365 beneficiaries, 2 County Urban Development Officers, 1 Project Manager, and 24 officials. Primary data were collected using semi-structured questionnaire, key in-depth interview, focus group discussion and field observation. Secondary data from existing relevant documented sources was also collected. The quantitative and qualitative data were analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistics, and thematic analysis, respectively. The study found a significant difference in beneficiary participation in the postimplementation stages between the two projects (t {156} = 5.426, p =0.000 for ex-post monitoring and evaluation and t {189} = 3.610, p = 0.000 for ex-post maintenance). There was a significant difference in the level of sustainability of the two projects (t {358} = 2.419, p =0.016). Participation in post-implementation stages significantly influenced sustainability ( 187.807 2,120 F  , p =0.000). There was no significant difference in beneficiary perception of the impact on the living conditions (t {358} = 0.474, p = 0.636). There was a significant difference in beneficiary perception of the impact of the two projects on the livelihoods (t {358} = 7.955, p = 0.000). Based on these key findings, it is concluded that the two projects were sustainable 15 years after completion and that the beneficiaries actively participated in post-implementation stages. The study recommends that local authorities and external agencies should encourage interventions that directly benefits slum dwellers to boost their motivation to participate in the post-implementation stages.
Evaluation of the effectiveness of environmental and social impact assessment in conflict identification and prevention for renewable energy projects in Kenya
(Egerton university, 2023-06) Omenge, Philip Manyi
Relations between household poverty, land use, land management, Social networks and agricultural production in Nyando and Muhoroni Sub counties - kenya
(Egerton University, 2023-08) Juma, Nelly Akinyi
Poverty is a serious and enduring problem in many developing countries with the poor constituting more than half of the Kenyan population. Muhoroni and Nyando sub-Counties in Kisumu County continue to have a high poverty rate despite the declining percentage of Kenyans living below the international poverty line. This study focused on the relations between household poverty, land use, land management, social networks and agricultural production in Nyando and Muhoroni sub counties. A survey research design was used in this study. Systematic random sampling was used to select 250 respondents who participated in the study. The questionnaire was used in data collection, entered into the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS version 20.0); and analysed both descriptively and inferentially. The Spearman’s Rank Order correlation (ρ) was used to establish the relationship between household poverty and land use; the relations between household poverty and land management; the relationship between memberships to social networks and poverty; and the relationship between poverty and agricultural production. The study determined that: A large proportion of the (64 per cent) of the respondents in Muhoroni and Nyando sub-counties are poor. Second, there is a statistically significant but weak positive correlation between household poverty and land use (rho = 0.269, ρ {0.000} < 0.01). Third, there is a statistically significant and moderate positive correlation between land management and household poverty (rho = 0.397, ρ {0.000} < 0.01). Fourth, there is a statistically significant but weak positive correlation between membership in social networks and house poverty (rho = 0.233, ρ {0.000} < 0.01. Finally, there is a statistically significant and moderate positive correlation between agricultural production and house poverty (rho = 0.364, p {0.000} < 0.01). The study concluded that: land use patterns in Nyando and Muhoroni sub Counties have significant implications on household poverty. that the adoption of land management practices is a proxy measure pertinent to of household poverty; those social networks are a significant strategy for reducing poverty and that increased agricultural productivity is crucial to household poverty alleviation. Consequently, the study makes the following recommendations. First, policies that target effective land use practices should be formulated. Second, there is a need to encourage households to seek agricultural extension services to keep abreast with current and appropriate and sustainable land management practices. Third, it is pertinent to build the capacity of social networks to enable them better serve members’ needs in terms of agriculture and land management. Finally, there is need for collaboration between national and county government of Kisumu in the formulation of technical policies that can foster the adoption of appropriate agricultural technologies and equipment by rural households.

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