Faculty of Agriculture

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    Agrometeorological information access and adaptation to climate variability nexus: case of smallholder sorghum farmers in Busia County, Kenya
    (Egerton University, 2024-09) Atsiaya, Obwina Godfrey
    Significant losses among Kenyan farmers have been attributed to seasonal patterns and disruptions due to climate change. The provision of agrometeorological information as a countermeasure has been constrained by the accessibility and application of the information in adaptation to climate variability. This study aimed to improve the socio-economic welfare of smallholder sorghum farmers in Busia County by enhancing access to and application of agrometeorological information in climate risk mitigation. The study targeted small-scale farmers who are most vulnerable to climate variability and also focused on a traditional crop which has received limited attention in CSA studies. A multistage sampling technique was used to sample 423 smallholder sorghum farmers. Primary data was collected through face-to-face interviews using a pretested semi-structured questionnaire. A Multivariate Probit model was used to assess the factors influencing farmers' choice for agrometeorological information pathways. A binary logistic model was used to determine the influence of socio-economic, institutional, and climate-related factors on access to agrometeorological information. A Poisson regression method was used to evaluate the factors affecting the uptake of climate-smart agricultural practices. Finally, an Endogenous Switching Regression Model was used to assess the effect of agrometeorological information access, and socio-economic and institutional factors on adaptation to climate variability among smallholder sorghum farmers. The results indicate that sorghum farmers mostly used radio, television extension, and mobile internet as weather information pathways. Farmers were found to implement an average of 2 CSA practices. Literacy was associated with the use of television and mobile internet to access CSA information. Proximity to meteorological stations increases the probability of access to agrometeorological information by 8%. The use of Indigenous knowledge and trust in agrometeorological information increased the uptake of CSA practices by 0.119 and 0.229 units respectively. Failure to adapt CSA was associated with a lower sorghum yield with a projected mean decrease of 0.88 in yield. Similarly, adaption was associated with an income increase of 1.37. The findings of this study reveal the need for sensitizing sorghum farmers on the importance of adopting CSA practices such as drought-tolerant varieties, early maturing varieties, irrigation, water harvesting agroforestry among others to enhance their full-scale uptake, improve yield, and contribute to food and nutritional security. This can be enhanced through policies that strengthen agrometeorological information dissemination to small-scale farmers to enhance accessibility and applicability.
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    Application of positive deviance concept to assess Amelioration strategies for environmental stresses on Smallholder dairy farms in Tanzania
    (Egerton University, 2023-08) Shija, Dismas Said
    Heat load, feed scarcity and disease infections are prevalent environmental stresses (ES) which either limit or reduce productivity potential of dairy cattle in the tropics. Those prevalent ES impact negatively on production performance of dairy cattle and results in a loss of livelihood benefits from dairying. Among smallholders, a few farmers (positive deviant farms (PDs)) attain consistently outstanding dairy production performance. While majority (typical farms) attain poor performance and loose benefits from dairy cattle. However, literature generally associates outperformance of PDs with husbandry practices being deployed differently from those in typical farms. Empirical evidence is lacking on association of PDs with specific husbandry practices, disease infections, lactation and growth performance. The objective of this study was to contribute to high livelihood benefits from dairying by improving productivity through learning from PDs’ ameliorative husbandry practices under contrasting stressful production environments in Tanzania. The severity of heat load stress on dairy cattle was estimated by temperature-humidity index (THI). A sample of 794 from 3800 smallholder dairy farmers benefiting from the African Dairy Genetic Gains Project was used. Positive deviants were identified based on criteria of consistently outperforming typical farms (p<0.05) in five production performance indicator variables simultaneously: daily milk yield ≥6.32 L/cow/day, energy balance ≥0.35 Mcal NEL/d, age at first calving ≤1153.28 days, calving interval ≤633.68 days and disease-incidence density ≤12.75 per 100 animal-years at risk. The study used a twofactor nested design, with farms nested within the production environment classified as lowand high-stress. Results show that dairy cattle in low-stress environment were exposed to lower heat-stress levels (68.20±0.39 THI) while those in high-stress environment were exposed to mild to moderate heat-stress levels (77.29±0.39 THI). The application of Pareto-Optimality ranking technique complemented with multiple indicator-variable sorting isolated 3.4% PDs and were fairly distributed in low- (n=15) and high-stress environments (n=12). Results reveal significant variations (p<0.05) between PDs and typical farms. Dairy cattle in PDs consistently attained better production performance in low- and high-stress environments. The management practices that differentiated PDs from typical farms were provision of larger floor spacing (13.19±1.94 vs. 6.17±0.37 m2/animal) in high-stress, cattle upgrading, and increased investment in housing, fodder, water and professional health services. These practices can be associated with amelioration of feed scarcity, heat load stresses, and disease infections, and better animal welfare status, which enabled attainment of consistent higher productivity levels in PDs. Therefore, typical farmers should learn from PDs on how to apply husbandry practices effectively to ameliorate feed scarcity, disease infections and heat load stresses.
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    Assessing Farm Level Practices Affecting Milk Production, Quality And Postharvest Losses In Smallholder Dairy And Pastoral Camel Herds Of Kenya
    (Egerton University, 2017-05) Kashongwe, Basole Olivier
    Farm level post harvest milk losses (PHL) in smallholder and pastoral milking herds that occur at milking, pooling, evening storage or at the farm gate delivery may be associated with many farm practices. This study tested the hypotheses that PHL results from milk hygiene practices, that feeding practices influence production and quality of milk, and that milk market outlets influence milk hygiene and PHL. Data was obtained in cross sectional survey, on-farm milk and feed sampling for quality and microbiological tests and targeted on-farm interventions to improve feeding and milk quality. Hypotheses were tested with Chi-square tests, analysis of variance and logistic regression. Mastitis prevalence within smallholder dairy herds was 1.69 times more in rural than in peri-urban farms while prevalence within pastoral camel herds was 1.56 times more in rangelands than in periurban herds. Mastitis positive milk samples had higher incidences of Staphylococcus aureus than of Streptococcus species, both in smallholder (57.9% vs 23.7%) and pastoral (41.6%vs 36.5%) herds. High SCC was associated with high prevalence of mastitis and Staphylococcus aureus. High SCC (≥4x 105cells/ml) was associated with PHL in pastoral (58.8%), in smallholder rural (27%) and in smallholder peri-urban (7%) herds. Feed diversity, quantity and quality (energy and crude protein) offered were better in rural than in peri-urban smallholder herds but had little influence on milk yields. Feeding green forages with crop residues and concentrates attained higher milk yields (10 kg to 14 kg per cow/day) in smallholder herds. Feeding in pastoral herds included Euphorbia tirucalli in the periurban where nutritional quality was better than in rangelands and feeds had influence on SCC and milk composition. Targeted intervention to improve feeding and milk quality in smallholder herds enabled the intervention group to produce 19.9 -19.2% more milk relative to control group, but intervention did not influence change in milk quality. Smallholders participating in both formal and informal markets produced more milk (21.9 kg/day) than those participating only in formal (≤14.7 kg/day) or informal (≤11.3 kg/day) market outlets. Milk quality was generally higher in informal compared to formal market outlets and milk price less than KES 28 a litre discouraged participation in formal markets (p=0.032). These results show that substantial PHL results from milk handling hygiene practices and that feeding practices influence volume and quality of milk produced while markets where farmers sell milk has influence on milk handling hygiene and PHL experienced.
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    Assessing influence of positive deviance and collaborative Learning on improving cassava production and marketing in Nyando climate-smart villages, Kisumu County, Kenya
    (Egerton University, 2023-07) Tana, Paul Ochieng’
    Nyando Climate Smart Village (CSV) is a multi-stakeholder Collaborative Learning Platform facilitated co-testing and co-development of a portfolio of climate smart technologies to empower farmers to respond to changing and variable climate risks. However, field surveys suggested that majority of the farmers have abandoned the technologies, suggesting that only a few could be benefiting with the worsening exposure to climate risks. Though collaborative learning may have failed to empower farmers, a phenomenon pointing to positive deviance behaviour is emerging, indicating possibility of viable solutions being present within local communities by positive deviant farmers who outperform positively compared to the typical majority. This study aimed to understand the influence of positive deviance and collaborative learning on fostering cassava production and marketing in Nyando CSVs of Kenya. The specific objectives were to determine how different typical farmers are compared to positive deviant farmers in adopting, abandoning and knowledge gained from climate smart cassava production and marketing; and how functions of innovation systems and collaborative learning have fostered climate smart cassava production and marketing in Nyando CSVs . The study implemented Participatory Action Research that integrated a household survey, Focus Group Discussion, Key informant interviews and collaborative learning forum (CLF). A sample of 150 farmers were reached out of which, six farmers were identified by peers as positive deviants (PDs) in climate smart cassava innovations. Data analysis was descriptive and inferential with Chi-square tests, logistic regression and best-worst score computation. Positive deviant farmers were distinctively different from typical farmers in adopting, abandoning and realising gains from climate smart cassava production and marketing. Compared to typical farmers, positive deviant farmers replaced local cassava varieties, allocated more land to improved varieties, and improved postharvest handling and cassava value addition. Unlike typical farmers, positive deviant farmers were less likely to abandon climate smart cassava innovations. They also attained relatively higher production, diversification, adaptability, productivity, marketable surplus and food security. Fostering of cassava production and marketing was relatively more important with knowledge development (19.17%), knowledge diffusion (18.86%) and resource mobilisation (14.88%). Collaborative learning had greatest improvement in knowledge about viable cassava seed cuttings, use of inputs, intercropping cassava with other crops, value addition and linkage to processors. These results demonstrate that positive deviance and collaborative learning can foster cassava production and marketing in Climate-Smart Villages. The study recommends strengthening extension service linked to farmer networks and proactively involving positive deviant farmers in promoting climate smart cassava innovations to empower farmers better against climate related risks.
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    Assessing Prevalence of Endometritis and Associated Influence on Performance of Smallholder Zero-Grazed Dairy Cows in Gasabo District of Rwanda
    (Egerton University, 2021-05) Nyabinwa Pascal
    Endometritis is a uterine disease that interrupts cow reproductive cycles as a clinical (CLE) or subclinical (SCLE) condition between 21st and 90th days postpartum (dpp), resulting in suboptimal fertility, production and profitability in a herd. This study tested the hypothesis that suboptimal fertility and production performance of zero-grazed dairy cows on smallholder farms result from prevalent CLE and SCLE cases and multiple risk factors (RFs) at the cowand herd levels. The specific objectives were to determine: farmer perceived and observed endometritis prevalence; farmer perceived effective management interventions (MIs); risk factors; and endometritis influence on milk yield (MY) and reproductive performance. Sample farms (n=370) in Gasabo District of Rwanda were accessed through exponential nondiscriminative snowball sampling in a cross-sectional survey. Zero-grazed dairy cows (n=466) in their 21 to 60 dpp were diagnosed for CLE and SCLE cases using Metricheck device and Cytotape, respectively, and prospectively observed for fertility performance up to 210 dpp, and MY for 30 days post-endometritis diagnosis. Data analysis used the Best-Worst Scaling choice method to determine effective MIs, path analysis model to determine RFs, and general linear model to determine influence of endometritis on MY and reproductive performance. Endometritis prevalence was 3.2% by farmer estimation, but 70.2% observed at the cow-level with 67.2% CLE and 31.8% SCLE while observed prevalence at herd-level was 71.1% with 68.1% CLE and 34.4% SCLE. Of the MIs (n=20) assessed, 60.0% were farmer perceived as the most effective prevention and control. The top four MIs were consulting animal health service (ANHS) providers, not sharing equipment between farms, keeping cows in a clean and dry shed, and selecting sires for calving ease. Some cow- and herd-levels RFs were specific for CLE or SCLE cases and some others were common for both CLE and SCLE cases in smallholder zero-grazed dairy cows. Compared to cows’ negative for endometritis, the positive cows had longer days to first oestrus (median 85 vs 63 days), longer days-not pregnant (95.5 vs 63.0 days), lower pregnancy rate at first service (16.5% vs 32.7%), more services per pregnancy (1.3±0.1 vs. 1.1±0.0) and more anoestrus postpartum cows (48.4% vs. 11.7%). The milk loss during period of discarding was 7.3 ± 0.3 while decrease in MY resulting from endometritis was 1.4 ± 0.2 litres /cow/day. It is concluded that a combination of Metricheck device and Cytotape could optimise detection of endometritis, implementation of MIs reduces RFs and improves reproductive performance while treating endometritis positive cases using veterinary drugs having no residual effect in treated cows could be an alternative to minimise MY loss and associated economic loss.
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    Assessment of Temporal Trend-Dynamics of Water Flow and Sediment Flux for Chókwè Irrigation Scheme in Gaza Province, Mozambique
    (Egerton University, 2021-05) Lateiro, Salvador De Sousa
    Sedimentation of irrigation canals is one of the major challenge that affects their hydraulic control and operation. The sedimentation reduces water conveyance capacity and may lead to overtopping in low land areas. A case in point is the Chókwè Irrigation Scheme (CIS) which has experienced sedimentation problems for decades. There is scanty information on water flow and sedimentation within the canals in the CIS which is crucial for proper management and operation of the scheme. To address this trend-dynamics of water flow and sediment flux for CIS was assessed. The study involved fieldwork at 9 stations during the dry (DS) and wet (WS) seasons, laboratory analysis and scenarios predictions. Bathymetric data were obtained for 2001, 2016 and 2019. Flow measurements and collection of the bed and suspended loads, were carried out using respective devices. The laboratory analysis for water and sediment’s pH, turbidity, Total Dissolved Solids (TDS), Atterberg test and sodium, calcium, magnesium, and potassium concentrations analysis, were performed. Forecasting and trend analysis of water flow and sediment flux was conducted using ARIMA, Mann-Kendall and Fourier Transform tests. Simulation of best scenarios was achieved by use of Ackers and White, Brownlie, Engelund-Hansen, Van Rijn and Yang models. Results indicated significant differences in canal banks and centre canal bed bathymetric profile between 2001, 2016 and 2019. The inflow physico-chemical factors explained their effects on sediment influx and deposition. The concentration of TDS was found to be around 250-300 ppm and 380-500 ppm, for DS and WS, respectively. Sodium was the most predominant element in water and sediment samples, reaching 0.285 ppm. The Liquid Limit, Plasticity Limit and Plasticity Index, were 52%, 20% and 32%, respectively. A mean of 2.96 N/m2 was obtained for the critical shear stress of erosion (τc). The main particle size in bed load sediments which were classified as saline were silt, fine sand and clay at 52%, 39% and 9%, respectively. The temporal water flow was found out to have a positive trend in majority of the stations. Sediment discharge recurrence was found out to be in every 2-4 and 1-2 years for DS and WS, respectively. At the offtake, the water flow and sediment flux magnitude was much lower. The results of this study show that there was a positive influence of water flow velocity on sediments settling time, which varied with time, grain sizes and canal depth. This study provides trends and scenarios of water flow and sediment flux that could be used for better management and operation of the CIS.
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    Association of Dietary Diversity and Microbial Safety of Food on Nutritional Status of Children Aged 6-59 Months in Sedentarised Pastoral Households, Marsabit County, Kenya
    (Egerton University, 2024-09) Adongo, Amos Otieno
    The transition from nomadic to sedentary pastoralism has introduced dietary changes among previously nomadic communities. However, limited information exists on how these practices affect the nutritional status of children aged 6–59 months, particularly regarding complementary food safety. This study assessed the impact of dietary diversity and microbial safety of foods on the nutritional status of children in Marsabit County, Kenya. A cross-sectional survey across six wards targeted children aged 6–59 months. Using multistage sampling, 394 children participated with caregiver consent. Data collection involved pre-tested questionnaires and anthropometric measures. For food safety, samples of food (127), water (27), and hand swabs (48) were collected from 127 households. Fumonisin and aflatoxins were analyzed using immuno-affinity columns (AccuScan Gold®), while AFM1, AFM2 in milk, and AFB1, AFG1, AFB2, and AFG2 in cereals were assessed using HPLC-FD. Microbial analysis included total viable, coliform, yeast, and mold counts, with Escherichia coli and Salmonella spp. identified via AOAC methods. Descriptive statistics and tests, such as chi-square and ANOVA, summarized population data, while linear and logistic regressions explored undernutrition predictors (p < 0.05). Results showed stunting, underweight, and wasting prevalence at 38.1%, 23.0%, and 18.5%, respectively, with 97% of children consuming mainly grains, roots, and tubers. About 51.5% did not meet the minimum dietary diversity score. Consuming legumes and eggs reduced stunting odds (OR=0.50, p=0.010), while dairy intake reduced underweight risk (AOR=2.09, p=0.015). Median fumonisin (300 μg/kg) and aflatoxins levels exceeded EU standards, with median AFB1, AFM1, and AFM2 also above regulatory limits. Mean microbial loads (± SE) for total viable counts, coliforms, yeast, and molds surpassed KEBs and EU values. Salmonella spp. prevalence was highest in Bubisa (57%), with E. coli detected in all tested foods. High viable counts increased underweight risk (AOR=4.304, p=0.004), while molds and E. coli correlated strongly with stunting (AOR=1.314, p<0.001; AOR=1.88, p=0.008). The study reveals high stunting and underweight rates linked to cereal-based diets and inadequate food hygiene. Raising caregiver awareness of food handling in sedentary pastoral settings is essential. Further research on mycotoxins should include biomarker assessments and identifying specific E. coli and Salmonella strains linked to stunting and underweight
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    Biochemical and molecular identification of key pathogens causing mastitis in dairy goats on smallholder farms in Kenya
    (Egerton University, 2014-04) Shivairo, Robert Shavulimo
    Mastitis in dairy goats was investigated with the objective of establishing the effect of management and the identification of the key causative agents through common diagnostic procedures of somatic cell counts, bacteriological identification and, for the first time in goat mastitis, by use of Polymerase Chain Reaction. A cross-sectional survey, using a structured questionnaire was conducted in three agro-climatic regions of Coast, Nyanza and Rift Valley, with goat keeping clusters serving as sampling sub-units. The focus of the questions was on housing, feeding, labour, water sources, record keeping, socio-economic status of respondents and availability of extension service. California Mastitis Test (CMT) was done at the farm-level, Somatic Cell Counts (SCC) and bacterial isolation were done in the laboratory. Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) on the two key bacteria, Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli were subsequently carried out on 16 randomly selected samples representative of the three dairy goat keeping agro-ecological zones. The management survey indicated that 56.9% of respondents were peasant farmers only 12% of respondents could afford hired labour. There was evidence of scarcity of quality water, with only 9% using water from rain catchment and the rest depending on wells, dams and rivers. There was no training package on dairy goats. The CMT scores for the two key organisms ranged between 2 and 3, making it a reliable test for udder infection. Somatic Cell Counts (SCC) was determined for 239 samples with scores ranging between 0.248 106 and 1.693 106 with a mean of 0.869 106. This study demonstrated significant SCC variations amongst the breeds, there was also significant variation in SCC scores for various locations. Other factors in the study were lactation length and parity all of which affected SCC scores. The bacterial isolation showed dominance of Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli respectively. The two species of bacteria are significant indicators of the state of hygiene on the farms. The PCR identification of the two organisms showed that they were distributed in all three regions of study. There is a need for more intensive studies on the various diagnostic tools especially CMT, SCC, bacteriology and PCR to enable the development of quality standards in Kenya for goat milk which do not exist at the moment.
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    Biosolids From Wastewater Treatment Pond ss A Potting Substrate for Greenhouse Tomato (Solanum Lycopersicum L.) Production
    (Egerton University, 2021-04) Otieno, Peter Caleb
    Farmers in developing countries are rapidly adopting greenhouse tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) production for high productivity and fruit quality. However, soil borne pests and pathogens, and nutrient depletion limit the productivity of soil grown tomato. Containerized tomato production using biosolids from treated sewage may alleviate the aforementioned problems. Four experiments were conducted at Egerton University to evaluate the potential of biosolids (BS) from the university sewage sludge as a potting substrate for greenhouse tomato production. The first experiment compared BS from Egerton University Wastewater Treatment Plant (WWTP) with forest soil (FS), coco peat (CP) and tea compost (TC) in a completely randomized design to determine its suitability for crop production in terms of physico-chemical and biological properties. The second experiment determined the effect of biosolids-forest soil mixing rates of 0%, 10% (1:10), 20% (1:5), 30% (3:10), 40% (2:5), 50% (1:2) and 60% (3:5) (v/v), on tomato seedling emergence and growth in a randomized complete block design (RCBD) with four replications. The third experiment determined the effect of biosolids-blended forest soil and NPK fertilizer on growth and fruit yield of greenhouse tomato in a split plot embedded in RCBD replicated four times. The rates of NPK fertilizer (0, 100 and 200 kg ha-1) and BS (0%, 10%, 20%, 30%, 40% (v/v)) were the main plot and subplot factors respectively. The fourth experiment evaluated the impact of BS treatment combinations used in experiment three on postharvest quality and safety of tomato. Harvested tomato fruits were subjected to laboratory analyses for postharvest quality and safety (heavy metal accumulation and biological contaminants). The results revealed that BS was comparable or superior to commercial substrates (CP and TC) in a number of physico-chemical and biological properties. Addition of BS to FS at the rate of 30% was not significantly different from TC in enhancing tomato seedling emergence and growth. Enhanced tomato growth and yield as well as superior postharvest quality and safety of fruits were consistently achieved by combining BS-blended FS at 10% with NPK at100 kg ha-1. However, this treatment combination was not different from BS-blended FS at 30% without NPK fertilizer for some growth and postharvest parameters. Biosolids-blended FS at 10% with application of NPK fertilizer at 100 kg ha-1 is recommended for potted greenhouse tomato. Where fertilizer is unavailable, BS-blended FS at 30% can be used as a potting substrate for transplants and greenhouse tomato production.
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    Characteristics, feeding and marketing practices of the emerging peri-urban Camel production system in Isiolo County, Kenya
    (Egerton University, 2013-05) Noor, Issack Mohamed
    Pastoral camel management strategies in northern Kenya, characterised by free herd mobility that enables efficient utilisation of rangeland resources, is slowly but progressively adopting restricted camel foraging within the vicinity of urban milk market outlets as seen in Isiolo town. The emerging peri-urban camel production system (PUCPS) has potential livelihood benefits to households but there are emerging pressures that can impede its sustained development and benefits. Key emerging pressures are on forage feed resources and market oriented milk production. This study explored options for improving feeding and marketing practices in PUCPS, guided by four research questions. The questions were: what are the key defining characteristics of PUCPS; what are its drivers for development; what are the challenges to its development; and what are the interventions to support its sustained development? Data were obtained from cross sectional surveys, focus group discussions, laboratory analyses of camel forages and supplementary feeding trials. Descriptive and inferential statistics comparing pastoral and peri-urban camel systems in Isiolo County indicated that camels remain the primary source of livelihoods even as pastoralists‟ transition to semi-sedentary urban lifestyle and milk is the key product. The drivers behind the emergence of PUCPS in Isiolo were: progressive sedentarization of pastoral communities with strong tradition for consumption of camel milk, a niche urban market for camel milk in Nairobi, and reliable (tarmac) road to urban markets. Compared to pastoral, peri-urban systems exhibited greater market orientation with large volumes of marketed milk, 2.4 times more sale of steer surplus stock (25.8 vs 62.8%) and purchase of 2.2 times more heifer breeding stock (12.3 vs 27.5%). The growth of Isiolo PUCPS has been rapid but is sensitive to disruption of peace and stability, market barriers due to poor milk hygiene practices and vulnerability to trypanosomosis and haemorrhagic septicaemia disease incidences that cause economic losses. Seasonal fluctuations in forage nutritive values were marked, being superior during wet season than in dry season (mean CP 15.70% vs 9.86%; mean CF 23.22% vs 32.57%; mean NDF 44.38% vs 53.15%). Consequently, wet season milk off-take declined by 33% during dry season and by 55% during severe drought which substantially reduced milk volume sold by 36% during dry season and by 60% during severe drought. Supplementary feeding with maize germ-based diet significantly (p<0.001) improved milk yield of lactating camels by 26% over acacia pods-based diet and by 50% over rangeland foraging and browsing. Major challenges to the continued development of Isiolo PUCPS are reported and the relevant interventions proposed. It is concluded that camel production in peri-urban areas near towns like Isiolo is gaining significance as an economic activity due to commercialization of camel milk
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    Chemical composition of Cupressus lusitanica, miller and eucalyptus Saligna, smith essential oils and bioactivity against lepidopteran and coleopteran pests of stored grains
    (Egerton University, 2015-09) Bett, Philip Kandagor
    The chemical composition of C. lusitanica and E. saligna essential oils was determined and leaf essential oils evaluated for contact and fumigant toxicity, repellence and reproduction inhibition effects against S. cerealella, A. obtectus, S. zeamais and T.castaneum. Bioassays were carried out at temperature of 28±2oC and relative humidity of 65±5% and laid out in CRD with four replicates per treatment. In all bioassays, essential oils were applied at 0.00, 0.05, 0.10, 0.15 and 0.20% v/w except fumigation. In the instant contact toxicity, oil was applied on wheat and bean or maize grains in 100 ml glass jars. In the residual contact toxicity oils were applied as above but for treated grain storage duration of 30-120 days. In the space fumigation, oils were applied at 0, 5, 10, 15 and 20 μlL-1 air in a space fumigation chamber whereas in grain fumigation oil was assayed at 0, 30, 50, 70 and 100 μlL-1 air and test insects exposed to oils for 3-10 days. In instant repellency, oils were assayed in an alternate untreated -treated bioassay system whereas in residual repellence oils were assayed as above but treated grain was stored for 30-120 days. In reproductive inhibition test insects were allowed to lay eggs in petri-dishes lined with filter papers soaked in test oils. Leaves yielded the highest amount of oil, 0.31% in E. saligna and 0.35% in C. lusitanica. In C. lusitanica essential oil, -pinene (38.1 %) α-pinene (23.9 %)-phellandrene (10.8 %) dominated in fruit, bark and leaves, respectively whereas in E. saligna p-cymene (26.8 %), sabinene (12.1%) and borneol (5.1%) dominated in leaves, fruit and bark respectively. In instant and residual contact toxicity, C. lusitanica and E. saligna essential oil caused mortality of 5-93.0 and 19.7- 89.5 %, respectively. In space and grain fumigation C. lusitanica and E. saligna essential oils caused mortality of 18.5-100 and 2.3-100 %, respectively. In instant repellence, C. lusitanica and E. saligna essential oil elicited percentage repellence (PR) values of 30-92.5 and -10-9.3 % but in residual repellence bioassay, oils produced PR values of 37.9-51.1 and 34-52.4%, respectively. Percent progeny reduction in C. lusitanica and E. saligna essential oils was 50- 100 and 58 - 100 %, respectively. The effects of C. lusitanica and E. saligna on the insect pests of stored products are manifold, hence promising insecticides and repellents to be used against insect pests of stored grains. Therefore, with more bioactivity studies on more insects and policies in place on formulation and application protocols, the oils might find a place in insect pest control.
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    Combining abilities and heterosis for ethanol related traits in sweet sorghum (sorghum bicolor l.)
    (Egerton University, 2018-11) Oyier, Moses Owuor
    Sweet sorghum [Sorghum bicolor (L). Moench] is important for production of fodder and ethanol worldwide. Objectives of this study were to determine: (i) the most suitable harvesting stage for sweet sorghum for which ethanol production is a maximum, (ii) the combining abilities for ethanol related traits and (iii) the best sweet sorghum hybrids for production of industrial alcohol. Experiments were conducted in Nakuru (0° 23′S, 35° 35′E), Homa Bay (0.35o13′07′′S, 34o07′44′′), and Kisumu (0o04′06′′S, 34o49′03′′E), counties in Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD). They involved harvesting of sorghum at various stages for analysis of sugar traits to determine the harvesting stage for sweet sorghum in Western and Rift Valley regions in Kenya for which ethanol production is optimum. Hybrids were made by crosses in a line by tester mating design and the products were evaluated across three locations. Fourteen lines were used as females while four lines were used as testers. Genotype, Genotype × Environment (GGE) biplot and Principal Component Analyses (PCA) were used to select the best performing and most stable hybrids. Results indicated that harvesting sweet sorghum at 104 to 117 days after planting is appropriate for production of kernels and ethanol. Line EUSS10 exhibited the highest ethanol (1062.78 L ha-1) from juice volume of 22976.9 L ha-1 while Line EUSS11 produced 985.26 L ha -1with a brix of 16.21. All the traits such as height, girth, cane yield, brix, juice volume and ethanol yield showed both negative and positive heterosis. Hybrids exhibited positive heterosis ranging from 36.63% to 101.17% and 22.87% to 113.77% for juice and ethanol volume, respectively. Line IS25547 and tester EUSS10 had the highest General Combining Ability (GCA) for ethanol production while BM39 × EUSS10 had the highest Specific Combining Ability (SCA). GCA effects accounted for a larger portion of the treatment sum of squares than SCA effects suggesting that additive gene effects are more pronounced than non additive gene effects in the inheritance of sweet sorghum traits such as ethanol and juice volume. GGE biplot analysis distinguished the best performing hybrids from the rest and PCA revealed that juice volume was one of the most significan components in ethanol production. This study suggests that hybrids IS9203 × EUSS10, GS001 × EUSS10 and NYANGEZI × SS04 can be developed for use by farmers due to their good performance and high stability across the tested environments with long rainy season in the low lands seen to be the best for sweet sorghum production.
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    A comparative analysis of the structure and performance of Agricultural science and Technology policy system in Kenya and Uganda
    (Egerton University, 2009-09) Godiah, Lawrence Mugunieri
    Despite the acknowledged importance of agricultural science and technology (AS&T), little is known about the structure and performance of AS&T policy system in developing countries. The structure and performance of this policy system in Kenya and Uganda was analysed using a preliminary ‘system components-shift effects’ framework. The system components comprised of agricultural research, extension, education and transboundary technology transfer. The impact of these components was modified by three-levels of shifteffects: policy environment, institutional arrangements and micro-conditions to give a 3x4 matrix of potential determinants of system structure. The structure was hypothesised to exist in three different generations: first, second and third. Uganda was presumed a first generation system and Kenya second. The potential system structure was separately related to three performance indicators, namely; technical efficiency, technical change and efficiency change using different econometric techniques in order to delineate important determinants of structure. The results indicated that the preliminary three-level framework can be used as an effective tool for delineating the structure of AS&T policy system in developing countries. Furthermore, the structure of the policy system differed between the first and second generation systems. At policy level, transboundary technology transfer was significant and positive only in second generation systems whereas agricultural education and research expenditures were important in both. At institutional level, intellectual property rights regulatory system had impact only in second generation systems, agricultural extension decentralisation had negative effect in first generation systems, whereas agricultural research coordination had no impact in both systems. At micro-level, literacy within the agricultural labour force was significant in second generation but not in first. However, domestic research outputs had significant impact in first generation systems but not second. The same applied to policies geared towards reducing transaction costs in accessing technologies. These results imply that generation specific AS&T policies should be encouraged instead of collective generic policies for all developing countries. Although lack of data precluded effective application of the three-level framework, this study offers opportunities for further research in this area, which has previously been driven by data and not ideas.
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    Crude sesame (sesame indicum l.) Oil quality assurance through hazard analysis critical control points and application of natural antioxidant in crude sesame oil stability: the case of the small - scale processing plants in Western Tigray, Ethiopia
    (Egerton University, 2024-09) Gebremeskel, Abrehet Fisseha
    Sesame (Sesame indicum) is a significant crop for the Ethiopian economy, but improper handling causes 22–35% of the seed to be lost along the value chain. The study aimed to reduce post-harvest losses in the sesame value chain in western Tigray, Ethiopia by implementing a Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP). To better understand the sesame value chain, a questionnaire survey conducted to 332 actors. Crude sesame oil (CSO) was extracted using a cold press mechanical extraction method. Sesame seeds' proximate composition and CSO physico-chemical quality were determined using the corresponding AOAC standard methods. Microbial quality assessment, chemical (Aflatoxin levels, pesticides, oxidation) and physical hazards analysis was conducted. The moisture content of sesame seed and CSO was found to be 3.36 and 0.37 percent, respectively. Sesame seeds were found to have 50.9% oil, of which 83.15% was made up of unsaturated fatty acids. Three critical control points (CCPs) identified were during sesame roasting, conditioning while pressing, and packaging of CSO. Potential hazards during roasting were fungi and mycotoxins; hazards during extraction were staphylococcus aureus, and aerobic plate bacteria; and hazards during packaging were staphylococcus aureus, aerobic plate bacteria, and oxidative metabolites during the filling process, to be carefully controlled for safe CSO production. The peroxide value of CSO from raw and roasted sesame seeds was 8.23 and 5.98 meq O2/kg oil after 35 days of storage at room temperature. However, after 35 days of storage at 65 oC, the raw and roasted sesame seeds' respective CSO peroxide values were 20.92 and 81.01 meq O2/kg. Meanwhile, oxidation was reduced when basil was added. Accordingly, during ambient condition storage, the peroxide values of CSO for raw and roasted seeds were 0.42 - 0.55 meq O2/kg, and during accelerated storage, they were 2.62 - 10.13 meq O2/kg, respectively. The total aflatoxin level in sesame seeds was found to be 14.98 μm/kg whose B1 (AFB1) component was 0.51 μg/kg. CSO total aflatoxin level was 8.5 μm/kg with the B1 component being 0.37 μm/kg. Because it lacks a refining procedure and hazards detected, the CSO shelf life was calculated to be no longer than two months based on the available data. The small and medium-scale food processing industries hold significant role in the community and yet lacks attention. As a result, periodic training and restricts regulatory on value addition, hygienic practices, and application of organic preservatives promote safe food production and improve the economic value. Though, spices such as sweet basil have been utilized as flavour enhancer and yet the preservatives effect in semi-packed and packed food is not well utilized.