Faculty of Agriculture

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EFFECTS OF INTRINSIC AGRIPRENEURIAL DRIVERS ON PERFORMANCE OF YOUTH-BASED FRUIT BUSINESSES IN NAKURU COUNTY
(Egerton University, 2024-10) KOKWON JEMATIA WINNIE
In recent times, where white collar job opportunities have become a rare site to encounter, youth-based businesses have proven to be imminent solution to unemployment in Kenya. An example of such business are the youth-based fruit businesses which offer a good source of income to the youth. In Nakuru County, Kenya, youth-based fruit businesses have the potential to significantly contribute to local economies and reduce youth unemployment. Therefore, understanding the intrinsic drivers that motivate these young agripreneurs offers valuable insights into enhancing the youth-based fruit businesses performance and their sustainability. Therefore, this study explored the effects of intrinsic agripreneurial drivers which are psychological capital, social capital and entrepreneurial motivation, on the performance of youth-based fruit businesses in Nakuru County. The study employed a cross-sectional research design using semi-structured questionnaires. The study employed a multistage sampling procedure. Data was analyzed through the SPSS, STATA and WARP PLS applications. Fruit agripreneurs were found to exhibit higher levels of necessity motivation (64%) as compared to opportunity motivation (60%). This showed that majority youth are getting into agrienterpreneurship not because of the opportunities that lie in the sector but rather because they have lacked livelihood options in other sectors. The results showed that necessity motivation only slightly increased the chance that agribusiness owners would build resilience, relational social capital, and structural social capital. On the other hand, it was discovered that the growth of youth-based fruit agripreneurs' psychological and social capital in all of its aspects was linked to opportunity motivation. On the other hand, among fruit agripreneurs, necessity motivation was linked to a lower display of cognitive social capital and self-confidence. According to this research, opportunity-driven agripreneurs are more likely to possess the social and psychological capital needed for a successful firm. The partial mediating role of social and psychological capital on the relationship between opportunity motivation and financial performance was statistically established. This means that for opportunity motivated agripreneurs to achieve financial performance, they should apply social and psychological capital in their business operations. In this regard, the study recommends that initiatives such as trainings aiming to improve the psychological and social capital of youth agripreneurs to first and foremost enhance the opportunity orientation of the agripreneurs. This is because this study has affirmed that opportunity motivation buds all facets of psychological and social capital.
INFLUENCE OF INSTITUTIONAL INTERVENTIONS ON ADOPTION INTENSITY OF ECOLOGICAL FARMING AMONG HOUSEHOLDS IN KIAMBU COUNTY, KENYA
(Egerton University, 2024-10) KAMAU WANGARI EMMA
The ecological farming system is an alternative agricultural system that integrates local knowledge into food production. It has the ability to ensure the whole agricultural and food systems are economically viable, socially just, and culturally sensitive. Through a variety of interventions and policy formulations, institutions play a crucial role in affecting the effectiveness and intensity of the adoption of ecological techniques. However, there is a dearth of thorough empirical research that shows a connection between current institutional initiatives and the level of adoption of ecological agricultural practices. Therefore, this study focused on analysing institutional interventions influencing the intensity of adoption of ecological farming. In addition, the study determined the factors influencing awareness of ecological farming and, finally, conducted an analysis of the effect of adoption on farm income. The study used multistage sampling to collect data from 320 households in Kiambu County. A generalised Poisson regression, a generalised ordered logit, and a multinomial endogenous switching regression model were used to analyse the three objectives, respectively. According to the results, awareness was found to be high (91%). Moreover, awareness was influenced by age, household size, drought and floods, soil erosion, perceptions of benefits, group membership, and information sources. Further, according to the generalised Poisson regression results, access to markets, training, information sources, extension contacts increased the likelihood of a farmer adopting ecological farming practices at higher intensity by 50.1%, 50.9%, 4.3%, and 38.7%, respectively. Finally, this study identified six bundles of various combinations that were used by households. A comprehensive package that included compost manure, mulching, crop diversification, integrated pest management (IPM), and minimum tillage increased farm income by 9.2%. Households using the said package had the highest gain in farm income. Also, using a package consisting of compost manure, crop diversification, and IPM, and the one consisting of compost manure, mulching, crop diversification, and IPM, increased farm income by 2.5% and 1.3%, respectively. Considering the results, this study calls for policy interventions that encourage multi-stakeholder partnership arrangements to facilitate farmers’ linkages to eco-friendly markets. Again, there is a need to enhance knowledge dissemination through tailored agricultural extension services and regular training forums. Also, establish policies that incentivise the comprehensive adoption of all ecological farming practices package. This would enhance household welfare through increasing farm income
GENETIC ANALYSIS OF HYBRIDISATION, MUTATION LOAD AND RUNS OF HOMOZYGOSITY OF GOATS FROM KENYA AND UGANDA
(Egerton University, 2024-10) CHIKOKO, THEODORA
Increase in human movements, improvement in reproductive technologies, and diversity of livestock management systems coupled with climate change determine the genetic structure and diversity within or between populations. However, little is known about different genetic parameters in most African goat populations, making it difficult to plan and implement genetic improvement and conservation programmes. This study focused on joint genome-wide SNP genetic analysis of goat populations from Uganda and Kenya to characterize the hybridization pattern of goats from the two nations, mutation load, Runs of Homozygosity and effective population sizes of goats from Kenya. A total of ten local and exotic goat genotypes sampled from different agro-ecological regions of Kenya (n = 94) and Uganda (n = 144) were used. Principal component, phylogenetic and admixture analysis were applied on the hybridization analysis. Results revealed that the studied populations are genetically distinct according to country of origin. This suggests that the transfer of genetic materials across the studied populations is possible for genetic improvement programs. For the mutational load (deleterious mutations), four Kenyan goat genotypes were used (Alpine, Saanen, Galla and Toggenburg). Gene annotation was done on ENSEMBLE (Capra hircus) using the Variant Effect Predictor (VEP) and the Biomart tool was adopted for gene ontology. Mutation load calculated through the ratio of missense to synonymous mutations was similar (0.37). Five genes were obtained from the highly deleterious mutations (SIFT score > 0.01) which include PROS1, EHBP1, LTN1, LRRN4, and FNDC3A. These results can be used as a base to predict the future rate of mutation load for future genetic improvement and conservation. Finally, Runs of Homozygosity (RoHs), effective population size, and prediction of future trends were estimated for the four goat genotypes from Kenya. Across the genotypes, 348 RoHs were detected and their distribution per chromosome was breed-specific. Higher inbreeding coefficients were observed for the Toggenburg, Saanen, and Alpine with values of 0.68, 0.35, and 0.23 respectively. Galla recorded a FROHS value of 0.09, suggesting that the genetic material for this genotype is well managed at the government station. Effective population size decreased over time across the genotypes indicating reduced genetic diversity, this will continue to decrease if recommended measures are not implemented to improve the Ne. In conclusion, goats from Uganda and Kenya are genetically distinct and can be used for cross-border genetic improvement. Furthermore, within breed selection and introduction of new exotic genetic lines must be promoted in any goat population to improve the genetic diversity.
ANALYSIS OF FACTORS INFLUENCING FARMER PARTICIPATION IN HAY FODDER MARKETING FOR IMPROVED PERFORMANCE OF MARKET OUTLETS IN LAIKIPIA COUNTY, KENYA
(Egerton University, 2024-08) MUTUKU, MUEMA STEPHEN
The increased demand for livestock products due to the growing human population has led to a rise in demand for fodder in Kenya. Fodder, thus, offers viable business opportunities for agripreneurs in the country. In order capitalize on the available market outlets and the rising demand for fodder in Laikipia County and its environs, farmers’ involvement in fodder business activities are not clearly understood. The general aim of this study was to contribute to the up- scaling of fodder production and marketing through analysis of factors that influence farmer participation in fodder markets for improved performance of market outlets in Laikipia County. The specific objectives were to: map the fodder markets, determine the factors influencing decisions, and commercialize fodder and to analyze the performance of fodder market outlets. Data was collected from 204 randomly selected fodder farmers based on a list of 769 farmers provided by the ASDSP II Laikipia and analyzed using STATA software. Functional and institutional analytical approaches were used to map the fodder markets. The Univariate and Multivariate Probit models were used to determine the factors influencing decisions to commercialize fodder. Lastly, market margin analyses were conducted to measure the performance of fodder market outlets. Findings revealed that the fodder market system holistically consisted of input providers, fodder farmers, fodder traders, fodder end-users and support/enabling institutions. The factors significantly influencing farmer participation in fodder markets were age, marketing costs, market agreements, market information access, credit access and proactivity. Further, the choice of local livestock farmers, local traders and buyers from other counties’ outlets was significantly influenced by age, experience, commercialization index, fodder quality, marketing costs, market agreement, distance to the nearest market, market information, proactivity and price. Finally, the market margin analyses pointed to favorable, attractive and viable performance of the fodder outlets. Therefore, government policies that seek to enhance collective action and networking, create business as well as address bottlenecks in various nodes of the market should be explored. Interventions to stimulate market information access, improved feed quality, market linkages and reduced marketing costs are also recommended. In order to capitalize on the existing fodder demand and viability, interventions and policies for financial and technical support for investment, formalization of the fodder market as well as market cost reduction are highly recommended.
EXTENT OF USING NON-STRUCTURAL FLOOD CONTROL MEASURES AND THEIR IMPACT ON HOUSEHOLD WELFARE IN BUNYALA SUB-COUNTY, BUSIA COUNTY, KENYA
(Egerton University, 2024-10) SHILISIA, WANGARE RITA
Floods are the most destructive water-related disasters considered to have dire consequences to the livelihoods of the affected population. Kenya experiences both riverine and flash floods in various parts of the country and various measures have been devised to deal with floods. Structural measures; dykes, canals, reservoirs, and non-structural measures: early warning systems, insurance schemes, awareness campaigns, and land-use planning have been implemented as mitigation measures to help in coping with this disaster. Structural measures often require large investments hence these measures are mainly implemented by the government. Non-structural measures can however be implemented by various parties such as individuals and non-governmental organizations in their various capacities. This study focused on four non-structural measures namely; Flood forecasting and Early Warning Systems (FEWS), land-use planning with zoning, rainwater harvesting, and self-insurance, implemented in flood-prone Bunyala, Busia County in Kenya. Although these measures are in use, there is no clear evidence of the impact it has on the livelihoods of vulnerable households. To fill this gap, the main objective of this study was to contribute to the welfare of households in Bunyala Sub-County. The specific objectives were to determine the household perception, factors influencing the extent of use, and welfare impact of non-structural flood control measures. A multistage sampling procedure was used to obtain the desired sample of 384 with 256 participants and 128 non-participants. Descriptive statistics were used to analyze the household perception. Multivariate Multiple Regression model was used to determine factors influencing extent of use and Propensity Score Matching (PSM) was used to determine the welfare impact of non-structural measures. The descriptive results indicated that land-use planning with zoning was perceived more useful compared to the other measures due to its ease of application. Multivariate regression showed that Early Warning duration, flood frequency, flood effect, land regulation awareness, credit access, climate information access, receiving early warning, saving for floods, and water harvesting initiatives were factors found to be jointly significant in influencing the extent of using the non-structural flood control measures at p<0.05. PSM results revealed that participants spent Ksh. 3860.7 less consumption expenditure compared to participants. It was therefore concluded that the flood control measures had a positive impact on welfare. Policy implications included improving early warning technology and building awareness. Households need to come up with initiatives aimed at creating awareness and sharing the right information on floods and non-structural measures.
DRIVERS OF PARTICIPATION IN INCUBATION PROGRAMS AND THEIR INFLUENCE ON SUSTAINABILITY OF AGRIBUSINESSES IN SELECTED PUBLIC AND PRIVATE UNIVERSITIES IN KENYA
(Egerton University, 2024-09) NAKIGANDA RACHEAL GLADYS
Youth unemployment is a major challenge in Kenya which is largely attributed to the mismatch between the education curriculum and the job market demands. With the hope of combating the problem, Universities are promoting entrepreneurship incubation to instil an entrepreneurial mindset to create student-led agribusiness ventures. This is done through University Incubation Programs (UIPs). Despite this acknowledgement, most University- Incubated Student-led Businesses (UISBs) have a high failure rate and low sustainability. To address this issue, the study sought to examine drivers of participation in incubation programs and their influence on the sustainability of agribusinesses in selected public and private universities in Kenya. Specific objectives were; to characterise student-led incubated agribusiness, to determine drivers of motivation of student entrepreneurs, and to determine the factors influencing UISBs. Data for this study was collected using a multistage sampling from 272 respondents using a semi-structured questionnaire. Objective one was analysed using descriptive statistics, Principal Component Analysis (PCA) was used for objective two while Structural Equation Model under the Partial Least Square method (PLS-SEM) was used for objective three. Results from the descriptives revealed that UISBs on average exist for only one year and five months where the majority do not survive their first year of operation. The majority of these students join UIPs to develop their businesses (40.7%) and have business management challenges which is also the major reason why many agribusinesses failed (39.7%). Furthermore, results from PCA revealed that most university students participate in UIP out of a need rather than seeing it as an opportunity, a component support with an alpha value of 0.823. These components, along with concerns about the stigma of failure, and personality, were analyzed using PLS-SEM. This analysis revealed positive and significant relationships between necessity motivation factors and personality/behavioural factors towards the sustainability of UIBs (p=0.000). On the other hand, opportunity motivation factors had no significant relationship to the sustainability of agribusinesses (p=0.831). To ensure the long- term success of UIBs, the study suggests that training programs should focus on necessity motivation factors since they significantly influence the sustainability of UIBs. In addition, policymakers should consider interventions that reduce unemployment, such as institutionalizing UIPs.
AWARENESS AND CONSUMPTION PATTERNS FOR PRECOOKED BEAN PRODUCTS AMONG HOUSEHOLDS IN MACHAKOS COUNTY, KENYA
(Egerton University, 2024-05) GATWIRI, MUTEGI JUDY
Beans are a good source of protein, fibre, complex carbohydrates, and micronutrients. Their consumption is however limited by the high energy and water requirements for cooking as well as the long cooking time. As a result, precooked bean products which require less cooking time, fuel, and water, were introduced in Kenya, to increase bean consumption, improve nutrition and conserve the environment. Despite this intervention, there is still insufficient consumption of precooked bean products, which has been attributed to inadequate information about the products. This study, therefore, sought to assess consumer awareness and consumption patterns for precooked bean products. The specific objectives of this study were to determine consumer awareness, factors influencing consumer preference and consumption frequency for precooked bean products among households in Machakos County. A multistage sampling technique was used to select a sample size of 385 respondents and a semi-structured questionnaire was used for data collection. Descriptive statistics, Multivariate Probit and Poisson regression models were used for analysis using STATA computer software. Findings indicate that majority (52%) of the respondents are aware of precooked bean products. In addition, consumer preference for precooked bean products is significantly influenced by gender, household size, presence of a child below five years, employment, monthly income, health status of a household, market distance, cooking time, fuel, colour and shelf life. Further, the findings reveal that consumption frequency for precooked bean products is driven by age, education, presence of a child below five years in the household and nutrition knowledge. However, employment, household size and colour of these bean products negatively affects consumption frequency. This study concludes that the nutrition content of precooked bean products significantly influences their consumption patterns. Thus, this study recommends that policymakers and other stakeholders should emphasize the nutrition and health benefits of precooked bean products when making policy decisions and strategies. This could promote consumption of precooked bean products as well as enhance household food and nutrition security. Emphasizing the economic benefits of consuming precooked bean products could equally be important in enhancing consumption and conserving the environment.
COST EFFECTIVENESS OF RECYCLING ORGANIC WASTE USING BLACK SOLDIER FLY AND EFFECT ON HOUSEHOLD INCOME IN KIAMBU COUNTY, KENYA
(Egerton University, 2024-09) MUGENDI, GAKENI PERPETUAL
The adoption of insect-based technologies in managing organic waste is gaining traction. Information on determinants of adoption and the technologies' cost effectiveness is important for policymakers' decision-making on efficient waste management. The study determined the factors influencing the adoption of black soldier fly (BSF) in organic waste recycling, its cost effectiveness compared with conventional composting, and the effect of adopting BSF on household recycling income. Primary data was collected from a sample of 222 households, 105 using BSF and 117 using conventional composting, in Kiambu County and supplemented with secondary data from existing literature. Binary logistic regression, cost-benefit analysis, and endogenous switching regression models were used to determine the determinants of choice to adopt, cost effectiveness, and effect on recycling income, respectively. The empirical results from binary logistic regression revealed that membership in waste management groups, access to waste management extension information, and perception of diversification of recycled products significantly and positively influenced the adoption of BSF in organic waste recycling into fertilizer with odds ratios of 1.801, 3.227, and 15.299, respectively. The cost-benefit analysis indicated that households recycled 4.81 tons and 3.84 tons of organic waste per cycle using BSF and conventional composting. Recycling 1 ton of organic waste per cycle using BSF generated an annual gross margin of 55.36% and a Net Present Value (NPV) of $2128.36 (10 years, 12% discount rate). The NPV was highly sensitive to variations in the quantity and price of fertilizer, production cycle, and labour cost. On the other hand, recycling 1 ton of organic waste per cycle using conventional composting generated an average annual gross margin of 16.63% and NPV of $55.97 (10 years, 12% discount rate). Endogenous switching regression output indicated that the average treatment effect (ATT) of 2.224 (18.68%) indicated that the adoption of BSF positively affected household recycling income. Moreover, households not using BSF would increase their recycling income by 18.78% if they adopt BSF in recycling organic waste into fertilizer. Our findings indicate that BSF is cost- effective and has huge potential in recycling urban and peri-urban organic waste. Policy development on efficient waste management should be aimed at increasing awareness on the economic, environmental and circular economy benefits of using BSF for organic waste recycling. Moreover, households should be encouraged to adopt BSF so that they do not only benefit from recycling organic waste into fertilizer, but also benefit from diversifying their livelihood opportunities.
ANALYSIS OF FISH CONSUMPTION PATTERNS IN INFORMAL SETTLEMENT: CASE OF KIBERA IN KENYA
(Egerton University, 2024-10) ISABU, KAMIDI FERDINAND
The increasing urban population has resulted in the emergence of informal settlements, which are characterised by poor sanitation, low income and food and nutrition insecurity. Kenya, among many developing nations, experience the challenge of hunger and malnutrition deficiency, especially among the urban poor. To mitigate the issue of food and nutrition insecurity, fish consumption has been reminiscent of addressing protein deficiency since the majority of the informal settlements are facing nutrition deficiency. This is due to inadequate income to support their well-being, which makes it difficult to afford a well-balanced diet. Thus, the objective of this study was to understand the contribution of fish in enhancing food and nutrition security among households in informal settlements. The study was conducted in the Kibera informal settlement. A two-stage sampling procedure was used to select 385 households where food decision-makers were interviewed using a pretested structured questionnaire. Ordered probit was used to analyse both objectives one and two while a Linear Approximate Almost Ideal Demand System (LA-AIDS) model was used in analysis objective three. The results indicated that the frequency of fish consumption was influenced by gender, years in school, income, migration, price, neighbourhood effect, time taken to reach the fish outlet, and the number of outlets within a 100-metre radius. More than half (57%) of consumers consumed fish 2-3 times a day. Income, price, culture, religion, neighbourhood effect, number of meals and information from neighbours influenced the number of species of fish consumed by consumers. The number of species consumed were silver cyprinid (Rastrineobola argentea) (51%), Nile tilapia (Oreochromi) (34%), Nile perch (Lates niloticus) (12%) and Common carp (Cyprinus carpio) (<1%). Finally, age, gender, household size and education level significantly influence the demand for fish. Nile tilapia was elastic and hence considered a luxury food category to consumers. Silver cyprinid was inelastic and therefore regarded as a necessary food, while Nile perch was an inelastic and inferior category food among fish consumers. There is a need to increase the fish consumption frequency, especially for the small species of silver cyprinid (Rastrineobola argentea), which has been seen to be the most consumed among households in the informal settlement because of its affordability. The increasing demand for various species consumed needs to be enhanced since fish is important in improving nutrition security; hence, an increase in the availability of affordable fish in the informal settlement will improve both food and nutritional security, especially in the Kibera informal settlement.
GENETIC EVALUATION OF IMMUNOGENETIC VARIATIONS, MUTATIONAL LOAD AND EFFECTIVE POPULATION SIZE IN INDIGENOUS CHICKEN
(Egerton University, 2022-11) MBAKAYA,KULUNDU ESTHER
Modern poultry production houses large flock of birds at high stocking density thus increasing risk of diseases, and disease spreading. Control of diseases through improved management, vaccination and prophylaxis to a large extend increases costs and affects animal welfare negatively. One promising strategy to increase general disease resistance is by selectively breeding for immune traits using antibody titers against particular pathogen. The study aimed to examine the population structure of 150 Indigenous chickens (IC) at genome level. Secondly, it aimed to identify the impacts of deleterious mutations with relation to disease resistance and undertaking functional characterization of deleterious variants. Lastly, the study aimed to estimate Linkage Disequilibrium -based effective population size, rate and levels of inbreeding. Objective one addresses phenotypic and genetic clustering. Phenotypic clustering based on body weight and antibody titers revealed two significantly (P < 0.001) distinct groups of IC. Cluster with high mean in bodyweight and low mean in titers and vice versa. Genetic characterization at whole genome level grouped the IC into two groups providing a deeper understanding of the structure of IC population to supplement the use of phenotypes. At chromosome 16 level grouped IC as a single population. Part two of the study identified deleterious alleles and carry out gene ontology analysis. Using whole genome data, 182 deleterious genes were identified, of which, six were related to immune traits. The six genes included; FANCA, RBBP5, CRB1, RUFY3, FBXO38, and PDE3A. Results revealed numerous biological and KEGG processes that are involved in immune and disease resistance traits. Analysis of the ontology of the ENSGALG00000046739 candidate gene that was identified in chromosome 16 (MHC region) was linked with missense variants associated with the regulation of RNA polymerase II transcription. The third part of the study confirmed that effective population size of IC is decreasing whereas the inbreeding rate is increasing as the number of generations increase. The rate and levels of inbreeding seem to be in line with low effective population size thus leading to loss of diversity in IC. The findings in this thesis provide insight understanding on the immuno-genetic variations, genomic diversity. The knowledge generated in this study is useful for the development of a sustainable IC breeding programme for enhanced IC productivity and improve disease resistance. Consequently, reducing the need for vaccine and antibiotic treatments, thereby reducing drug residues in IC products.
EFFECTS OF USING DIGITAL INFORMATION PLATFORMS ON POTATO PRODUCTION AND MARKETING IN MOLO AND NJORO SUB-COUNTIES KENYA
(Egerton University, 2025-09) CHINSINSI, VERONICA DAKALIRA
Smallholder Irish potato farmers face numerous challenges which include low productivity and lack of access to ready and reliable markets among others. This is an attribute of their limited access to production and marketing information. Recognizing this problem, the public and private sectors developed digital platforms specific for potato namely, Viazisoko and Mzizi app to help farmers with these problems. While the majority of prior research has looked at the factors influencing the adoption and efforts to expand the adoption of digital platforms, there remains a gap on understanding the effectiveness of these digital platforms on productivity and marketing among smallholder potato farmers. Therefore, the purpose of this research study was to evaluate the effects of using digital information platforms on potato production and marketing among smallholder farmers in Molo and Njoro Sub-counties, Kenya. The study's general objective was to contribute to improved productivity and marketing of potatoes for enhanced food and income security among smallholder farmers through the use of digital platforms. Specifically, the study attempted to determine the factors that influence access and use of digital platforms, to determine the effects of using digital platforms on productivity, and to evaluate the effects of using digital platforms on sales volume among smallholder potato farmers in Molo and Njoro. The cross-sectional research design was adopted and the multistage sampling technique was used to select 402 potato smallholder farmers. Data was collected using a semi-structured questionnaire. The results from Heckprobit revealed that factors that significantly influenced farmers’ access to digital platforms were sex (p<0.01), education (p<0.01), phone ownership (p<0.01) and farming experience (P<0.05); whereas potato land size (p<0.01), access to credit (p<0.05), trainings (p<0.01), and need for potato production information (p<0.01) significantly influenced farmers to use the digital platforms. The Multinomial Endogenous Treatment Effects model results revealed that the use of digital platforms is associated with high productivity gains (coef; 0.532, p<0.01), and higher sales volume (coef; 1.543, p<0.01) even after correcting for selection bias. Therefore, there is need for effective policies tailored towards enhancing the access and use of digital information platforms among potato smallholder farmers in order to increase productivity and sales volume.
GENETIC PARAMETERS AND CORRELATIONS BETWEEN FEED EFFICIENCY AND GROWTH TRAITS FOR BORAN CATTLE IN KENYA
(Egerton University, 2024-10) MAJOYA,AMONI ANGELA
Selection for increased body weight leads to heavier animals which have higher feed and maintenance costs, ultimately reducing the profitability of beef enterprises. Measures of feed efficiency such as residual feed intake (RFI) and feed conversion efficiency (FCE) require individual animal feed intake records, leading to higher cost of production. Kleiber index (KI) and relative growth rate (RGR) are derived from already existing performance data. However, their genetic parameters and genetic correlations with growth traits are not known. This study aimed to estimate genetic parameters for feed efficiency and their genetic correlation with growth traits as well as investigating the impact of direct-maternal genetic correlation on estimated breeding values on weaning weight by analysing 2184 records of body weight adjusted (WA) to 205 (WA205), 365 (WA365) and 550 days (WA550), daily growth rate from birth to weaning (ADGB-205), yearling (ADG205-365) and 550 days (ADG365-550), Kleiber Index and relative growth rate at 205 days (KI205, RGR205), 365 days (KI365 and RGR365) and 550 days (KI550 and RGR550) via Bayesian inference in THRGIBBSF90 Software. Direct heritability estimates for ADG ranged from 0.12 to 0.27. Estimates for WA were in range of 0.05±0.05 at 205 days to 0.10±0.05 at 550 days. Estimates for KI were 0.13±0.05 at 205 days to 0.29±0.05 at 550 days. For RGR, estimated direct heritability at 205 days was 0.21±0.05, 0.19±0.04 at 365 days and 0.33±0.05 at 550 days. Genetic correlations between growth rate and feed efficiency traits were low at all ages. The direct-maternal genetic correlations for WA, ADG, KI and RGR at 205 days were between -0.30 and 0.90. The genetic correlations between WA365 and ADG were moderate to high (0.45 to 0.67) while WA550 had a low, positive (0.17±0.09) and negative (-0.30±0.08) genetic correlation with ADG205-365 and ADG365- 550, respectively. The association between KI365 and RGR365 was strong and positive (0.78±0.04) while the genetic correlations between KI365 and RGR550 at 365 and 550 days were low (-0.34 to 0.02). Direct-maternal genetic correlation for weaning weight was strong and negative (-0.49±0.03), leading to significant re-ranking of animals for direct (rrank=0.827) and maternal breeding values (rrank=0.221) estimated by the model fitting direct-maternal genetic correlation and those without. KI and RGR had substantial heritability estimates, implying potential for improvement through selection. The genetic correlations of KI and RGR with growth traits and the direct-maternal genetic correlation indicate antagonistic relationships, therefore, a weighted index which also accounts for direct-maternal genetic effect should be implemented.
NUTRITIONAL COMPOSITION, TECHNOLOGICAL PROPERTIES, AND SENSORY CHARACTERISTICS OF IMPROVED PIGEON PEA [Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp.] VARIETIES GROWN IN MACHAKOS COUNTY, KENYA
(EGERTON UNIVERSITY, 2025-09) ABABU VICTOR
ood insecurity and poor nutrition remain major challenges, particularly in Arid and Semi-Arid Lands (ASALs), where more than 4 million people face an eminent problem of acute food insecurity. Pigeon pea, a resilient pulse crop, offers a promising solution due to its adaptability and high protein content. Research institutions in Kenya have developed improved pigeon pea varieties with desirable agronomic traits. However, limited data exist on their nutritional composition, technological and sensory characteristics. This study determined the nutritional composition, technological properties and sensory characteristics of six improved and one control pigeon pea varieties grown in Machakos County. The experiment was set in a Completely Randomized Design (CRD). Data was analysed using on PROC GLM procedure of the statistical analysis systems (SAS) version 9.1.3. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was conducted at 95% confidence level and Tukey's honestly significant difference (HSD) applied for mean separation. Proximate analysis revealed significant variations (p<0.05) across varieties: moisture (8.67–10.71%), fibre (7.26-8.75%), ash (3.99-5.51%), protein (24.52-31.16%), fat (1.19-1.92%), and carbohydrates (44.64–52.63%). Mineral content was notably high particularly for zinc (54.26-74.31 ppm), iron (143.45-367.25 ppm), and phosphorous (2191.06-2909.00 ppm). Cooking significantly reduced antinutrients (tannins, phytates, and phenolics) with Egerton Mbaazi 2 showing the highest tannin reduction (57.6%). Technological properties also varied significantly. The control variety (ICEAP 00554) had the highest volumetric expansion before cooking (VEBC) and water absorption capacity (WAC), while KARI Mbaazi 2 exhibited the highest volumetric expansion after cooking (VEAC). KAT60/8 had the highest TSS at 26.67%, correlating positively with VEBC/VEAC (r = 0.76) and VEBC/D/RgD (r = 0.89). There was a significant variation in the sensory attributes with the Principle Component Analysis (PCA) explaining 58.8% of the total variation. Egerton Mbaazi 2 variety scored highest (5.88) in overall acceptability whereas KARI Mbaazi 1 variety was least preferred (4.50). While pigeon peas provide ample protein, they also contain notable levels of antinutritional factors such as phytates and tannin. These compounds can be reduced through cooking, although the process may lead to some nutrient loss. Sensory evaluation highlights consumer preference for specific varieties, emphasizing the need for breeding programs to only prioritise agronomic performance but also desirable sensory and nutritional traits. Conclusively, improved pigeon peas varieties demonstrate a strong potential to improve nutrition through value-added foods and alternative protein sources. Furthermore, their adaptability to ASALs regions positions them as a viable crop for generating income among low-income farming communities in these regions.
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SCHOOL FARM FACTORS AND THE ACQUISITION OF AGRICULTURAL SKILLS AMONG SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS IN MALAVA SUB-COUNTY, KAKAMEGA COUNTY, KENYA
(EGERTON UNIVERSITY, 2025-09) RECHA, OUKO ROBERT
One of the objectives of teaching agriculture in secondary schools is to equip students with hands-on farming skills. This is considered as one of the ultimate panacea to achieving youth employment and boosting food security. A school farm is considered a necessity in the implementation of the agriculture curriculum for acquisition of practical skills. However, there is limited research on the integration of the school farm and its associated facilities in the teaching of agriculture for skill acquisition. This study therefore, aimed at establishing the relationship between school farm factors and the acquisition of agricultural skills. Correlational research design was adopted. The study targeted 1532 secondary school teachers and 4327 form three students in Malava Sub-County. Out of the target population, the study purposively narrowed down to 171 teachers of agriculture and 2532 form three students of agriculture who formed the accessible population. Based on Nassiuma formula, 15 schools were sampled. Based on the Yamane formula, 150 form three students of agriculture were sampled. One teacher of agriculture from each of the 15 schools participated in the study. The data collection tools used included two sets of questionnaires and an observation guide. To determine the instruments’ validity, a pilot study was conducted in Khwisero Sub-County. The teachers’ questionnaire had a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.89 while that of the students had 0.72. The observation guide’s reliability was established through qualitative analysis with the guidance from the supervisors. The statistical tool employed for data analysis was chi-square test of relationship using the Statistical Package for Data analysis (SPSS) version 26. The study established that among the school farm factors, levels of access, utilization and adequacy of the school farm have a statistically significant relationship to the level of agricultural skill acquisition. The study recommended that in order to enhance level of access to the school farm especially during lesson time, more time needs to be allocated to agriculture on the timetable. To improve on adequacy, management through the school principals should strive to procure more land. To enhance level of utilization, the study recommended that the teachers of agriculture should adhere to the syllabus guidelines of implementing not only the theoretical aspect of the subject but also incorporating the suggested practical activities for skill acquisition.
EFFECT OF PADDY SOURCING METHODS ON THE VOLUME OF RICE MILLED BY SMALL AND MEDIUM-SCALE RICE MILLERS IN MWEA CONSTITUENCY, KIRINYAGA COUNTY, KENYA
(EGERTON UNIVERSITY, 2024-02) APOLLO UMA
Rice plays a critical role in the socio-economic development of the Kenyan economy. Despite this acknowledgment, the capacity of over 256 rice mills in Kenya is underutilized. The main objective of this study was to determine the effect of paddy sourcing methods on the overall volumes of rice milled by small and medium-scale millers. Specifically, it focused on identifying paddy sourcing methods, determining the level of usage of paddy sourcing methods, factors that determine choice of paddy sourcing methods and effects of the sourcing methods on the volume of rice milled by small and medium scale millers. The study adopted a multistage sampling technique and used semi-structured questionnaires to collect qualitative and quantitative data using face-to-face interviews. Data was collected from 90 small and 70 medium-scale rice millers giving a total of 160 millers in Mwea, Kirinyaga county. Descriptive statistics, multivariate probit analysis, and a two-stage Instrumental Variables approach were used in data analysis. Results indicate that the methods used are direct sourcing from individual farmers (88%), individual farmers bringing paddy to the miller (83.9%), buying from traders (76.3%), and sourcing using agents (68.7%). The most frequently used paddy sourcing method is a combination of direct sourcing from farmers and individual farmers bringing paddy to the miller at 51.9%. Factors that influenced the utilization of paddy sourcing methods included the millers’ age, ownership of transport means, price of paddy, commission cost, gender, marital status, working experience, transport cost, storage capacity and degree of competition. Approximately 97.8% of rice millers use a combination of paddy sourcing methods while 2.2% use a single paddy sourcing method. Finally, the use of a combination of buying from traders, direct sourcing from individual farmers and individual farmers bringing paddy to the miller (B1D1I1A0) has a significant effect on the volume of paddy sourced and milled. Therefore, the study recommends policy initiatives aimed at improving transport infrastructure and enhancing communication between stakeholders within the paddy supply chain that can promote the efficiency and sustainability of paddy-sourcing methods within the rice-growing regions. Initiatives aimed at promoting transparency in the paddy pricing system can strengthen the relationship between millers and farmers thus fostering a mutually beneficial agricultural system. Disseminating up-to-date market information, can guide rice millers’ decision-making and help them adjust their strategies and ensure competitive edge in the industry.
FACTORS INFLUENCING YOUTHS’ PARTICIPATION IN AGRICULTURAL ENTERPRISES IN NJORO SUB-COUNTY, KENYA
(EGERTON UNIVERSITY, 2024-06) NYAKAPENE, NAVISON
In Africa, underemployment and unemployment are endemic challenges facing many economies on the continent. Out of 1.2 billion people on the continent, more than 60% are aged between 18 and 35 years. This situation correlates with the Kenyan economy where about 80% of youth are unemployed. As a mitigation mechanism, agricultural entrepreneurship was an option for solving unemployment. The main objective of this study was to analyse factors influencing youths’ participation in agricultural enterprises in Njoro Sub-County, Kenya. This research specifically focused on determining the extent to which youths participate in agricultural-oriented enterprises, challenges limiting youth participation in agricultural entrepreneurship, and identifying the socioeconomic factors influencing agricultural entrepreneurship. The research used random utility maximization as the guiding theory. A multistage sampling strategy was used to select 246 youths from three wards: Njoro, Mau Narok, and Mauche. The study used descriptive and inferential statistics to determine the extent to which youth are participating in agricultural entrepreneurship. Non-parametric tests such as Friedman’s test were used to determine challenges limiting youth participation agricultural entrepreneurship and the probit regression model was used to identify socioeconomic factors influencing agricultural entrepreneurship. The descriptive statistics showed that 44.8% of the youths were participating in agricultural-oriented enterprises which was less than those not participating because agriculture needs more investment in terms of labour, capital, and managerial skills yet youths in rural areas cannot afford them. The results from the Friedman test ranked that challenges limiting youth agricultural entrepreneurship were lack of start-up capital, the high cost of starting up, legal restrictions which include policies, taxes, high risks to the business environment, and no access to land. The results from the probit regression models show that socioeconomic factors influencing agricultural entrepreneurship include the following; age, education, experience, credit access, marketplace ownership, income, and training. Less than 50% of youths are participating in agricultural-oriented enterprises support can be provided by both government and non-governmental organizations through a grant and loan system. There is a need for follow-up in terms of workshops, seminars, and training to capacitate youths with the required agricultural entrepreneurship skills. Policies could be amended specifically to support youth agricultural entrepreneurship through issuing capital access.
COVID-19 MEASURES EFFECT ON FOOD CONSUMPTION PATTERNS FOR URBAN LOW-INCOME HOUSEHOLDS IN NAKURU COUNTY, KENYA
(Egerton University, 2023-11) MWORIA MUNGAI KELVIN
The COVID-19 pandemic has disrupted food chains worldwide. The Kenyan government initiated measures to curb the spread of the novel disease. Some measures include lockdown, a ban on social gatherings, and the closure of institutions like school restaurants and eateries, potentially changing households' food consumption patterns. This study contributes towards improving the livelihood of low-income households in Nakuru County by assessing the effects of COVID-19 measures on food consumption patterns in Nakuru County. Specifically, the study aimed to determine the changes in consumption patterns due to COVID-19 measures, assess the factors influencing changes in consumption patterns, and determine COVID-19 measures' effect on food consumption patterns. Data was collected through structured questionnaire interviews. Multi-stage sampling was used to select a sample of 246 Household respondents in Kaptembwa, Rhonda, and Kapkures wards residents in Nakuru West Sub-county. Paired-sample t-tests were undertaken to determine significant differences in the mean level of shopping frequencies and food consumption of different food categories during the pandemic and before. The study used the ordered logistic regression model to assess the factors influencing change in food consumption patterns. The effect of COVID-19 measures on FCP was determined through the multinomial endogenous switching regression model. Study results indicated a significant decrease in household consumption of meat, dairy, fruits, snacks and wheat products (p-values <0.001). Findings also revealed that there was a significant decrease in shopping frequencies of readymade food, snacks and meat products (p-values <0.001) and a significant increase in shopping frequencies of vegetables and wheat products (p-values <0.001 and fruits (p-values <0.05). The factors including HFDM age, Change in food prices, income changes and change in the person in charge of food before COVID-19, fruits and vegetables shopping frequency, and the ban on social gatherings significantly affected the decrease in food consumption patterns while money spent on food and movement restrictions significantly affected an increase in FCPs. Out of the sampled 246 households. 63.01% were affected negatively, 7.32% had no effect. 6.10% experienced positive effects, while all other partial combinations had a negative effect on FCP. Recommendations drawn from the study include subsidies of staple foods during a crisis, educational programs and effective communication of proposed measures to spur the local economy by enabling local production and sourcing of materials required during a crisis.
EFFECT OF POST-HARVEST LOSSES ON THE INCOME OF AVOCADO FARMERS IN MURANG’A COUNTY, KENYA
(Egerton University, 2025-10) MUITA, KARIMIRE DAVID
All over sub-Saharan Africa and Kenya, enhancing avocado post-harvest losses (PHL) throughout the value chain is an essential avenue to increase commercialization, income for farmers and food and nutrition security. In Murang’a County, where avocado farming is the main source of cash livelihood for farmers, significant quantities of harvested fruits are PHL. Because we know very little about the extent of losses caused by disease, their determinants, and income effect, effective mitigation policy cannot be enunciated. The purpose of the study was to determine the effect of PHL on the income of smallholder avocado farmers in Gatanga Sub-County in Murang’a County. The specific objectives were to: (i) characterize avocado post-harvest losses (PHL) at farm and market level; (ii) identify factors responsible for PHL; and (iii) assess impact of PHL on farmers’ earnings. To collect data for the study, a quantitative research design was used where a sample of 187 (one hundred eighty seven) farmers was selected through multistage sampling. Details were gathered using well-organized surveys and evaluated using explanation and deduction statistics, a fractional reaction model, and a multinomial endogenous switching survey (MESR) model. The study revealed that 33.16% of the farmers were affected by quality damage or total loss. This damage mainly occurred during harvesting because of diseases and mechanical damage (abrasion, bruising, splitting). Other causes were pest infestation, theft and poor infrastructure and weather conditions. Older farmers with smaller fields that lacked credit access engaged off-farm and had longer distances to market. Sociodemographic factors like education gender household size, farm size, and farming experience had significant effect on income according to MERS model. Male farmers were less likely to lose produce than female farmers. Farmers who were educated had adopted improved practices that caused them to have less PHL. Larger households and larger farm sizes, especially those with labour and infrastructure advantages, were less likely to lose produce. More experienced farmers, however, often incurred greater losses from risky practices. The research calls for stronger measures on pest and disease management, harvesting and handling, storage infrastructure, transport infrastructure, and finance and training access. Reducing PHL will benefit not just farmers but also consumers and other stakeholders along the chain. It will boost the incomes of farmers and also be significant to Kenya’s food security aspirations and commercialisation of avocado farming on a sustainable basis.
NUTRITIONAL COMPOSITION, TECHNOLOGICAL PROPERTIES, AND SENSORY CHARACTERISTICS OF IMPROVED PIGEON PEA [Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp.] VARIETIES GROWN IN MACHAKOS COUNTY, KENYA
(EGERTON UNIVERSITY, 2025-09) ABABU VICTOR
Food insecurity and poor nutrition remain major challenges, particularly in Arid and Semi-Arid Lands (ASALs), where more than 4 million people face an eminent problem of acute food insecurity. Pigeon pea, a resilient pulse crop, offers a promising solution due to its adaptability and high protein content. Research institutions in Kenya have developed improved pigeon pea varieties with desirable agronomic traits. However, limited data exist on their nutritional composition, technological and sensory characteristics. This study determined the nutritional composition, technological properties and sensory characteristics of six improved and one control pigeon pea varieties grown in Machakos County. The experiment was set in a Completely Randomized Design (CRD). Data was analysed using on PROC GLM procedure of the statistical analysis systems (SAS) version 9.1.3. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was conducted at 95% confidence level and Tukey's honestly significant difference (HSD) applied for mean separation. Proximate analysis revealed significant variations (p<0.05) across varieties: moisture (8.67–10.71%), fibre (7.26-8.75%), ash (3.99-5.51%), protein (24.52- 31.16%), fat (1.19-1.92%), and carbohydrates (44.64–52.63%). Mineral content was notably high particularly for zinc (54.26-74.31 ppm), iron (143.45-367.25 ppm), and phosphorous (2191.06-2909.00 ppm). Cooking significantly reduced antinutrients (tannins, phytates, and phenolics) with Egerton Mbaazi 2 showing the highest tannin reduction (57.6%). Technological properties also varied significantly. The control variety (ICEAP 00554) had the highest volumetric expansion before cooking (VEBC) and water absorption capacity (WAC), while KARI Mbaazi 2 exhibited the highest volumetric expansion after cooking (VEAC). KAT60/8 had the highest TSS at 26.67%, correlating positively with VEBC/VEAC (r = 0.76) and VEBC/D/RgD (r = 0.89). There was a significant variation in the sensory attributes with the Principle Component Analysis (PCA) explaining 58.8% of the total variation. Egerton Mbaazi 2 variety scored highest (5.88) in overall acceptability whereas KARI Mbaazi 1 variety was least preferred (4.50). While pigeon peas provide ample protein, they also contain notable levels of antinutritional factors such as phytates and tannin. These compounds can be reduced through cooking, although the process may lead to some nutrient loss. Sensory evaluation highlights consumer preference for specific varieties, emphasizing the need for breeding programs to only prioritise agronomic performance but also desirable sensory and nutritional traits. Conclusively, improved pigeon peas varieties demonstrate a strong potential to improve nutrition through value-added foods and alternative protein sources. Furthermore, their adaptability to ASALs regions positions them as a viable crop for generating income among low-income farming communities in these regions.
XYLANASE PRODUCTION FROM MANGO PEEL, BANANA PEEL, AND CARROT POMACE USING ASPERGILLUS BRASILIENSIS AND ITS APPLICATION IN COOKIE PRODUCTION
(EGERTON UNIVERSITY, 2025-10) TIMAR PETROS MENBERE
This study tested the possibility of using the fruit and vegetable residues, namely banana peels, mango peels, and carrot pomace, which were sourced in Nakuru city, to produce xylanase using solid-state fermentation with Aspergillus brasiliensis. The substrates were dried (70°C, 24 h), milled (0.5mm particle size), and subsequently inoculated with Aspergillus brasiliensis spores (1 × 10⁶ spores/mL). The Box Behnken design was used to systematically optimize fermentation conditions by varying pH (4.0, 5.0, 6.0), temperature (25, 30, 35°C), and duration (96, 120, 144 h). The production of xylanase was suspected by the development of clear zones on xylan agar medium. ANOVA with Tukey’s post-hoc test (p less than 0.05) in Minitab and SAS 9.4 revealed that pH and cultivation time had significant effects, and not temperature, on enzyme activity. The optimal enzymatic performance was obtained at pH 4.2, 100.9 h of fermentation, and 25o C, indicating the presence of a strong interaction between pH and time. The crude enzyme extract was added to cookie formulations in concentration levels of 0 to 1500 IU, and enzymatic treatment significantly improved the texture of cookies, as shown by decreased hardness and increased fracturability, diameter, and thickness. Even when the dose of the enzyme increased, the parameters redness (a*) and yellowness (b*) were nearly remained constant, while lightness (L*) decreased. No significant modulation of farinograph characteristics was found, but pasting behaviour was modified; the values of viscosity varied significantly at most of the gelatinisation stages. Consumer acceptability tests showed a uniform high total liking score throughout the whole range of enzyme concentrations and a hedonic scale of scores that ranged between 6.00 and 6.40. Taken together, these results show that the valorization of fruit and vegetable waste to the production xylanase enzyme is successful and that xylanase can be used effectively to enhance the quality of cookies and, thus, provides a sustainable approach to waste management and food processing

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